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B    3    272    ODt, 


HORACE  GUNTKORF 
Scientific  Literature 
San  Wego,  California 


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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


FIELD  ZOOLOGY 


CRARY 


A  TEXT-BOOK  OF 

FIELD  ZOOLOGY 

INSECTS  AND  THEIR  NEAR 
RELATIVES  AND  BIRDS 


BY 

L.    E.    CRARY 


ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR   OF    BIOLOGY    AND   GEOLOGY,    KANSAS    STATE 
NORMAL  COLLEGE,    EMPORIA. 


WITH  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  SEVENTEEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PHILADELPHIA 

P.  BLAKISTON'S  SON  &  CO. 

1012  WALNUT   STREET 

1911 


COPYRIGHT,  1910,  BY  P.  BLAKISTON'S  SON  &  Co. 


Printed  by 

The  Maple  Press, 

York,  Pa. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


This  book  is  intended  primarily  for  students  who  have 
had  little  previous  knowledge  of  insects,  or  animals  of  any 
sort.  The  animals  chosen  for  discussion  have  been  the 
more  familiar  ones  which  live  with  us  from  day  to  day. 
Two  modes  of  approach  to  the  subjects  of  study  are  in- 
tended :  the  investigative  study  of  the  animals  themselves, 
as  provided  for  in  the  directions  for  field  work  with  the 
different  groups  of  animals ;  and  the  class  discussions  of  the 
facts  observed,  in  their  bearing  upon  each  other  and  upon 
the  many  problems  which  living  beings  are  continually 
offering  for  our  solution.  In  the  latter  phase  of  study 
the  teacher  must  be  a  large  factor.  One  cannot  put  into 
a  text-book  all  there  is  in  a  subject  The  present  form  of 
the  book  is  the  outcome  of  its  progressive  use  in  the 
school-room,  and  thus  has,  at  least,  the  merit  of  having 
been  tried. 

The  method  of  presentation  of  the  subject  is  based 
upon  two  lines  of  belief :  first,  that  life  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  facts  of  creation,  if  not  the  most  interesting; 
and,  second,  that  life  is  a  continuous  fact,  of  common 
powers  but  various  in  its  expression,  whether  one  proceeds 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  early  to  the  late, 
or  from  the  low  to  the  high.  These  are  facts  that  are 
usually  reserved  for  the  student  who  has  already  acquired 
some  body  of  knowledge  of  animal  life;  but  younger  stu- 
dents, beginners,  find  quite  as  much  delight  and  profit 


M347653 


vi  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

in  the  discovery  of  their  own  similarities  to  forms  of  life 
unlike  themselves,  and  in  the  fact  that  life  powers  are  not 
theirs  by  right  to  the  exclusion  of  other  animals,  which 
may  even  transcend  them  in  some  of  these  powers. 

The  writer  stands  indebted  to  several  authors  whose 
work  has  covered  a  much  larger  field,  notably  Comstock, 
Folsom,  Galloway,  and  Kellogg,  and  the  many  excellent 
workers  in  the  Government  Biological  Survey  and  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology.  Courteous  permission  was  given 
to  use  various  illustrations,  by  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  by 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  and  by  James  T. 
Hathaway,  of  New  Haven,  Conn. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 
INSECTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I. — Introduction  to    insects    .    .    .    .    ...   ..    .-  i 

II. — Special  senses  of  insects    ........  7 

III. — Vital  processes  of  insects.    .......  20 

IV. — Development  and  metamorphosis  ..  .....    .  32 

V. — Insects  and  their  classification    ......  42 

VI. — General  suggestions    for     field    work    on 

insects.    .    ....»    .    .    .    ..   ,    .    .    .    .    .,  .    .  46 

VII. — Field  work  on  Coleoptera     ...:...  59 

Coleoptera 67 

VIII. — Field  work  on  orthoptera .,  .    .  79 

Orthoptera      ,    ......    .    .....    ,,  .    .  87 

IX. — Field  work  on  hemiptera      . 98 

Hemiptera  .    .    .    ...    .....    .    .    .    .  107 

X. — Field  work  on  lepidoptera    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  119 

Lepidoptera    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    ,    .    .    .    .  125 

XI. — Field  work  on  hymenoptera     ...    .    .    .  139 

Hymenoptera     ...    ...  .    .......  149 

XII. — Field  work  on  diptera  .    .    .    ...    .    .    .  176 

Diptera    .    .    .    .    .    ,    ..   .    .    .    .    .    ...  183 

XIIL— Odonata      .    .    .    .    .    .    .    ...    .  ..    .    .  207 

XIV. — Ephemerida 213 

XV. — Plecoptera  ..............  217 

XVI. — Neuroptera     .......    .    .    .    .    .    .  221 

XVII. — Siphonaptera      ...    .    .5..    ..;...  226 

vii 


Vlll  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

PART    II. 

ARTHROPODA    EXCLUSIVE    OF    INSECTS    AND    CRUSTACEANS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVIII. — Near  relatives  of  insects  .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .'231 

XIX. — Key  to  families  of  spiders    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  246 

PART  III. 

BIRDS. 

XX. — General  suggestions  for  field  work  on  birds  249 

XXI. — Introduction  to  birds 252 

XXII. — Physical  features  of  birds     .    .    .    ...    .  262 

XXIII. — Migrations  and  nesting  habits     .  \-   .,.    .  274 

XXIV.— Food  of  nestling  birds  .    .    ....    .    .    .    .  287 

XXV. — Nervous  system  and  special  functions   .    .  296 

XXVI.— Passeres ....  307 

XXVII.— Picariae     .  V'.Y.    .    .    .    .    .   '*.  .    .    .- .  312 

XXVIII.— Psittaci    .    ....    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    „-/.  316 

XXIX.— Raptores ,  318 

XXX. — Columbae     .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  320 

XXXL— Gallinae    .    .    .' ,    .    .    '.    .    .    .    .   .    .    .    .  322 

XXXIL— Limicolae.    .    .    . .  .. '.  ". '"';     '.   ,    .    .  ;..    .    .  327 

XXXIII.— Herodiones.    .    ...;...!..  \    .',  331 

XXXIV.— Alectorides      .    .    .    ,"/  .  ^    .    .    ,   ,  .\    .  334 

XXXV.— Lamellirostres    .    .    .•  .    ....    .    .    .    .  337 

XXXVL— Steganopodes.    .    }   .    .    .    .    .    .    .    ...  343 

XXXVII. — Longipennes 347 

XXXVIII.— Pygopodes  .    ..    .    .......    .    '.    :    .  350 

INDEX  .    ....    .    .    ":•  .    .    . "  .    ,    .    .    .  357 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


1.  Skull  of  a  grasshopper .  4 

2.  Portion  of  compound  eye  of  a  fly      .......  8 

3.  Median  ocellus  of  a  honey  bee •.  9 

4.  Antenna  of  a  carrion  beetle    . .    .    .  12 

5.  Tactile  hair 14 

6.  Nerve  endings  in  tip  of  labial  palpus  of  a  fish  moth .  1 6 

7.  Ear  of  a  grasshopper  .    .    .    .    .    ;    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  17 

8.  Locust  from  lateral  aspect,  auditory  organ     ...  18 

9.  Auditory  hairs  of  a  mosquito     .........  18 

10.  Antenna  of  a  mosquito   .    *    .    .    »    .    .    ...    .    .  19 

1 1 .  Tracheal  system  of  an  insect .    .    ...    .    .    .    .    .  21 

12.  Tracheal  gill  of  a  Mayfly     ......-.••••  22 

13.  Digestive  system  of  a  beetle  ..........  25 

14.  Stages   in   development   of  nervous   system   of   a 
dipter  water  beetle  .    .'  .    .    .... 29 

15.  Concentration  in  nervous  system  of  a  dipter   .    .  30 

1 6.  Hypermetamorphosis  of  Epicauta  cinerea  .    .   ...    .  34 

17.  Larva  of  tomato  worm    ....    .    .......  35 

18.  Pupa  of  tomato  worm     ....    .  '  . ':.    '.    .-.    .    .  36 

19.  Adult  of  tomato  worm    ..,'...-,.....  37 

20.  Development  of  squash  bug  ..........  41 

21.  Diagram  of  insect  net 1    ....  49 

22.  Dip  net       .....................  50 

23.  Drying  board 55 

24.  Great  water  scavenger         ..'...  61 

25.  Egg  case  of  water  scavenger      .    .    .    .    _   .    .    .    .  61 

26.  Larva  of  water  scavenger 62 

27.  A  flower  beetle,  Euphoria  inda 62 

28.  Some  California  ladybird  beetles 70 

29.  The  searcher 71 

ix 


[•  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

30.  Ventral  aspect  of  a  carabid  beetle 72 

31.  Various  forms  of  antennae 75 

32.  Legs  and  tarsi  of  beetles     .    .    .'    .    .    .    .    ....  76 

33.  Metamorphosis  of  a  beetle,  Cyllene  pictus  ....  77 

34.  Hypermetamorphosis  of  Epicauta  cinerea  ....  78 

35.  Locust  with  external  parts  named 88 

36.  Short-horned  grasshopper 89 

37.  Long-horned  grasshopper 90 

38.  Cricket-like  grasshopper.    .    . 91 

39.  Croton  bug •    -    •  93 

40.  Oriental  cockroach 93 

41.  Native  cockroach 94 

42.  Praying  mantis 95 

43.  Dapheromera  femorata 96 

44.  Giant  waterbug 100 

45.  Development  of  a  cicada 103 

46.  Front  wing  of  an  hemipter     ..........  107 

47.  Mouth  parts  of  an  hemipteron  .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  108 

48.  Short-winged  chinch  bug    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    ,    .    .  113 

49.  Soldier  bug ,    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  117 

50.  Assassin  bug     .    ....    .    .    ......    ....  117 

51.  Lepidopter  wing  to  show  scales     .    .    .....    .  125 

52.  A,  front    wing    of    monarch    butterfly    to    show 

venation "...........126 

B,    hind    wing    of    monarch    butterfly    to    show 

venation .    .    ....    .    .  ...  126 

53.  Head  of  a  butterfly .    .    .    ....    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  127 

54.  Adult  of  tomato  worm    .    .    .    ; 128 

55.  Sphinx  moth  at  petunia  flower 128 

56.  Wing  of  moth  to  show  jugum '    .    .  129 

57.  A,  wing  of  moth  to  show' frenulum  .......  130 

B,  wing  of  butterfly  to  show  frenulum  substitute.  130 

58.  Artificial  ant  nest :    ....  143 

59.  Thalessa  linator    ...............  151 

60.  Pigeon  horntail     . ^    ...  152 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  XI 

FIG.  PAGE 

61.  Mouth  parts  of  a  honeybee       .    ,    .    ...    .    .    .  153 

62.  Tongue  of  a  honey  bee    .    .    .    .    ........    .    .    .  153 

63.  Head  and  mouth  parts  of  a  honey  bee     .    .    .    .    .  156 

64.  Honeybee,  worker,  etc  .    i£&    .    .    .    ...    .    .    .  158 

65.  Portion  of  brood  comb  of  honey  bee,  one  queen  cell  159 

66.  Modifications  of  leg  of  worker  honey  bee     ...    .  162 

67.  Nest  of  mud  dauber     .    .  _.    .    ,    .    !.  -.    .    .    .   •.    .  163 

68.  Honey  bee  showing  wax  scales      169 

69.  Cicada  killer      .    ...    .    ....    .....    .    .    .  169 

70.  Tarantula  killer 170 

71.  Nest  of  "paper  wasp      .    .    ,-  .    .-  .    . 174 

72.  Blow  fly 177 

73.  Mouth  parts  of  a  horse  fly 184 

74.  Antennae  of  flies   ... 185 

75.  Ocelli  and  compound  eyes  of  a  fly 186 

76.  Metamorphosis  of  an  oviparous  fly,  Phormia  regina  187 

77.  Stable  fly  . 189 

78.  Mouth  parts  of  house  fly    .    .    ;  ..    .    .    .    ;  «.    .    .  189 

79.  Foot  of  a  house  fly * 190 

80.  A  house  fly ;..    ^  .    .    .    .    ./ .    .    .    .    .  190 

81.  Mouth  parts  of  a  female  mosquito 194 

82.  Life  history  of  a  mosquito      .    ...  .    i  •-.    ...    .    .  195 

83.  Female  Anopheles  with  antenna  of  male      .; j .    .    .  197 

84.  Antennae  of  a  mosquito  (Culex)      .    .    4    .    .    .    .    .  199 

85.  A  flower  fly  .    .' 201 

86.  A  bee  fly    .    .    .'   .    .    .    .    .    .    ...    .    ......  203 

87.  Stages  in  development  of  a  dragon  fly     .....  210 

88.  Nymph  and  adult  of  a  May  fly.    .    .    .    .    .    .    .    .  214 

89.  Nymph  and  adult  of  a  stone  fly    .    ..  .    .    '.    .    . '    .  218 

90.  Lace-wing  depositing  eggs      ..........  222 

91.  Larva  of  a  dobson    ..."...... 223 

92.  Adult  dobson 224 

93.  A  mantispa   .,..-...;..........  225 

94.  Egg,  pupa,  and  adult  dog  flea   ...........  228 

95.  A  milliped      .....    .    .-,    .    .    .......  232 


Xii  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

96.  A  centiped 233 

97.  A  scorpion 237 

98.  The  archaeopteryx 254 

99.  Conirostral  bill  of  a  canary 262 

100.  Falcatee  bill  of  a  crossbill 262 

101.  Fissirostral  bill  of  swallow ^  .    .    .    .  263 

102.  Fissirostral  bill  of  a  chimney  swift 263 

103.  Hooked  and  cered  bill  of  a  hawk 263 

104.  Tenuirostral  bill  of  a  nuthatch       .    .  264 

105.  Hind  limb  or  leg  and  foot  of  a  bird      265 

1 06    Front  limb  or  wing  of  a  bird *.    .    .    .-270 

107.  Typical  passerine  foot 307 

108.  Loggerhead  shrikes      309 

109.  Syndactyle  foot  of  a  picarian  bird 312 

no.    Belted  kingfisher 314 

in.   Zygodactyle  foot  of  a  parrot 317 

112    Semipalmate  foot  of  a  plover 328 

113.  Lobat-e  foot  of  a  coot 336 

114.  Wood  duck    .    . 341 

115.  Totipalmate  foot  of  a  pelican 344 

1 1 6.  Pelican 345 

117.  Palmate  foot  of  a  tern 347 


PART  I. 

r  "  .••.-•;;  §  INSECTS.  I     '  y "... ^ 

CHAPTER  I. 
INTRODUCTION  TO  INSECTS. 

Biology. 

Biology,  the  word,  is  made  from  the  two  Greek  nouns 
bios,  meaning  life,  and  logos,  meaning  speech,  reason,  word, 
that  is,  something  given  with  authority.  Hence  biology 
discusses  life  in  its  many  phases,  its  structural  means  of 
maintaining  itself,  and  its  power  of  perpetuating  itself 
from  one  generation  to  another.  Biology,  then,  concerns 
itself  with  both  plants  and  animals,  and  we  have  plant 
biology  and  animal  biology. 

Zoology. 

Zoology  is  built  from  the  two  Greek  nouns  zoon, 
meaning  an  animal,  and  logos;  hence  zoology  is  the  discus- 
sion of  animal  life  in  its  many  phases  of  activity  and  power. 
The  systematic  zoologist  divides  the  many  forms  of  animal 
life  into  branches  according  to  their  large  similarities  and 
dissimilarities.  He  may,  for  example,  establish  the  two 
classes,  Protozoa — one-celled,  non-differentiated  animals, 
very  simple  in  structure;  and  Metazoa — many-celled 

i 


2  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

animals,  many  of  them  highly  differentiated.  Under  the 
second  class,  he  may  establish  such  branches  as  the 
Coelenterata,  animals  with  a  continuous  body  cavity,  this 
cavity  having  but  a  single  opening,  which  serves  both  as 
mouth  and  as  anus;  Echinodermata,  animals  of  radiate 
structure,  no  backbone,  and  the  body  surface  beset  with 
spines  (from  e chinos,  a  hedgehog,  and  dermos,  skin) ; 
Mollusca,  including  such  animals  as  snails  and  clams; 
Arthropoda,  animals  with  organs  of  locomotion  jointed  in 
successive  segments,  literally  joint-footed  (from  arthron, 
meaning  joint  or  articulation,  and  poda,  meaning  organs  of 
locomotion) ;  and  Chordata,  animals  having  a  nervous 
cord,  or  a  backbone,  or  both.  The  last-named  branch 
includes  such  animals  as  the  sea  squirts  with  only  a  ner- 
vous cord;  and  the  fishes,  the  frogs,  the  reptiles,  the  birds, 
and  the  mammals,  with  a  vertebrate  skeleton. 

This  work  confines  itself  to  the  study  of  portions  of 
two  of  these  branches — the  Arthropoda;  and  the  Aves,  or 
birds,  under  the  Chordata.  Under  the  branch  Arthropoda 
are  found  insects,  scorpions,  mites  and  ticks,  millipeds 
and  centipeds,  spiders,  and  the  large  class  of  the  crusta- 
ceans. The  crustaceans  will  be  left  for  consideration  else- 
where, and  we  shall  confine  our  study  to  the  insects  with 
their  near  relatives,  and  birds. 

The  class  Insecta  includes  only  the  insects,  and  it  is 
itself  divided  according  to  the  similarities  and  dissimi- 
larities of  the  many  kinds  of  insects. 

The  name  insect  is  applied  to  such  animals  as  have 
the  body  cut  into  successive  segments.  These  segments 
are  for  the  most  part  grouped  so  as  to  form  three  general 
regions,  the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen.  The 
whole  body  may  be  composed  of  distinct  and  similar 
segments,  as  in  the  caterpillar;  or  may  be  greatly  modified 


INTRODUCTION   TO   INSECTS.  3 

to  serve  some  special  purpose,  as  in  the  honey  bee.  The 
segments  composing  the  head  are,  in  most  insects,  so 
fused  as  to  form  a  single  box-like  head-covering  of  one 
sclerite  only.  In  the  larva,  the  separate  head  sclerites  are 
usually  to  be  found.  The  three  segments  forming  the 
thorax  are,  in  many  insects,  so  fused  as  to  be  separated 
with  difficulty;  but  are  observable  in  the  generality  of 
insects,  being  seen  most  easily  on  the  under  side  of  the 
body.  Catch  two  or  three  large  jumping  grasshoppers, 
the  sort  that  do  not  fly  so  well  as  they  jump.  Put  one  into 
the  killing-bottle  and  let  it  stay  there  while  you  examine 
the  others.  Seize  one  of  them  by  the  abdomen — carefully 
— and  you  will  be  likely  to  realize  the  strength  of  the 
muscles  of  its  strong  hind  legs.  If  human  beings  were 
able  to  kick  as  vigorously  in  proportion  to  their  size,  woe 
to  their  enemies !  There  would  be  left  neither  vestige  nor 
trace.  Let  the  hopper  try  its  jaws  on  your  finger,  and 
you  will  sense  the  efficiency  of  leverage  in  the  jaw  muscles. 
Set  it  on  the  table  and  measure  the  length  of  its  jump. 
This  indicates  good  muscle,  and  stiff  skeleton  for  fasten- 
ing the  muscles  to.  All  grasshoppers  are  injurious,  so  no 
harm  will  be  done  by  putting  these  into  the  killing-bottle 
after  finishing  the  experiment.  Now  take  out  the  other 
hopper  from  the  killing  bottle,  and  with  a  sharp  knife 
sever  the  thorax  from  the  abdomen ;  cut  off  the  head  also, 
and  let  fresh  water  run  through  the  thorax  till  all  the  soft 
internal  parts  are  washed  away.  What  is  left  will  be 
chiefly  muscular  tissue,  the  complex  muscular  system  of 
the  thorax.  Accompanying  these  muscles  may  be  seen 
the  white  fibers  of  the  nervous  system,  but  the  muscular 
tissue  may  be  plainly  seen,  part  of  it  consisting  of  strands 
fastened  to  the  top  sclerites  of  the  thorax,  part  fastened 
to  the  sides,  and  part  crossing  to  reach  the  first  joint  of  the 


4  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

leg  on  either  side,  while  still  another  part  of  the  mass  will 
be  found  to  pass  laterally  to  attach  to  the  ribs  of  the  wings. 
Now  for  the  mouth  parts :  Give  your  living  grass- 
hopper a  fresh  young  grass  leaf,  and  watch  it  through  the 
reading-glass.  On  the  head  will  be  found  several  pairs  of 
jointed  organs  with  which  it  seizes  and  handles  the  leaf. 


B 


FIG.  i. — Skull  of  a  grasshopper,  Melanoplus  differ  entialis.  a,  antenna;  c, 
clypeus;  e,  compound  eye;  /,  front;  g,  gena;  /,  labrum;  Ip,  labial  palpus;  m, 
mandible;  mp,  maxillary  palpus;  o,  ocelli;  oc,  occiput;  pg,  post-gena;  v,  vertex. 
(Folsom.) 

The  mandibles  are  first  used;  they  seize  the  leaf;  the 
maxillae  break  up  the  green  bits  into  smaller  pieces ;  then 
is  seen  the  labium  or  under  lip,  which  seems  to  have  no 
further  use  than  to  turn  the  food  bits  round  and  round 
and  keep  them  from  falling  out  of  the  mouth.  Besides 
these,  at  the  side  of  the  mouth  opening  and  well  in  front, 
are  two  pairs  of  hair-like  appendages  which  are  constantly 


INTRODUCTION    TO   INSECTS.  5 

in  motion  in  and  out  of  the  food  mass;  these  are  the 
palpi  or  feelers;  one  pair  is  attached  to  the  labium  and 
the  other  pair  to  the  maxillae.  It  is  thought  that  there  are 
developed  on  these  palpi  of  the  grasshopper  the  taste 
buds  which  give  the  insect  its  taste  impressions,  its  sense 
of  relish  or  disapproval  of  the  food  under  consideration. 

On  the  front  of  the  head,  well  toward  the  eyes,  are  the 
antennas,  and  these  are  sense  organs  for  all  insects,  though 
not  giving  the  same  sensation  in  all  cases.  Touch  the 
antenna  of  your' grasshopper  very  lightly,  and  it  gives  a 
quick  jerk.  Threaten  without  striking,  and,  if  the  insect 
does  not  jump  away,  the  same  response  will  be  given. 
Make  a  loud  noise  near  the  insect's  antennae,  and  the 
antennae  will  wave  about  as  if  in  response.  As  to  other 
insects,  some  use  the  antennae  as  ears,  while  others  use 
thefn  as  noses.  The  true  uses  of  the  grasshopper's 
antennae  are  not  known.  Here  is  an  opportunity  for  some- 
one with  time  and  patience,  to  discover  a  valuable  fact. 

As  to  the  abdomen,  in  most  adult  insects  the  abdomi- 
nal segments  are  fairly  distinct  and  similar,  thus  retaining 
the  form  of  the  primitive  type  of  insect ;  for  in  insects,  as 
in  all  animals,  the  simplest  form  is  the  undiflerentiated  or 
similarly-segmented  type  or  individual. 

The  insect's  body  wall  is  cuticle,  but  it  is  rendered 
firm  and  horny  by  the  addition  of  a  substance  called 
chitin,  a  substance  which  serves  for  the  protection  of  the 
soft  internal  organs,  and  also  for  the  attachment  of  the 
many  muscles  necessary  in  running,  flying,  fighting,  home- 
making,  and  other  activities  of  insect  life.  There  is  no 
internal  skeleton,  .but  the  chitinized  cuticle  serves  the 
purpose  of  an  exoskeleton.  From  this  exoskeleton, 
especially  in  the  thorax,  many  processes  of  the  body  wall 
project  inward  for- the  attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the 


6  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

wings  and  the  legs.  The  insect's  body  wall  is  rendered 
flexible  by  the  fact  that  between  any  two  segments  there 
is  a  non-chitinized  area;  these  chitinized  areas  with  the 
non-chitinized  areas  between  constitute  sclerites,  and  the 
degree  of  flexibility  depends  upon  the  depth  of  the  infold- 
ing of  the  soft,  non-hardened  cuticle  between  any  two 
sclerites. 

Looking  the  grasshopper  straight  in  the  face,  there 
will  be  seen  a  sclerite  coming  down  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  face  and  nearly  covering  the  mandibles,  the  maxillae, 
and  the  other  mouth  parts.  This  is  the  labrum  or  upper 
lip;  it  is  hardly  to  be  called  an  appendage  of  the  mouth, 
but  is  rather  a  fold  of  the  cuticle  covering  the  mouth.  The 
mandibles  usually  consist,  as  in  the  grasshopper  just 
studied,  of  one  segment.  The  labium  usually  forms  one 
single  piece,  but  in  many  of  the  insects  it  is  modified 
into  several  pieces,  as  in  the  flies,  the  bugs,  and  the 
butterflies.  In  certain  insects,  some  of  the  other  mouth 
parts  may  be  reduced  to  mere  rudiments  or  may  be  lost 
altogether,  not  developed  because  functionless. 

At  the  side  of  the  grasshopper's  head  may  be  seen  the 
large  compound  eyes.  With  a  hand  lens  these  will  be 
seen  to  be  composed  of  a  large  number  of  very  small  flat 
faces,  instead  of  forming  one  smooth,  globular  surface 
like  the  human  eyeball.  Just  inside  the  margin  of  each 
compound  eye  may  be  found  two  of  the  simple  eyes,  and 
lower  down  in  a  groove  of  the  grasshopper's  face  is  the 
third  simple  eye.  These  look  like  tiny  beads.  A  house- 
fly has  three  of  these  simple  eyes,  but  they  are  set  in  a 
much  smaller  triangle  between  the  two  compound  eyes 
and  more  nearly  on  top  of  the  head. 


CHAPTER  II. 
SPECIAL  SENSES  OF  INSECTS. 

Sight. 

Both  simple  and  compound  eyes  are  found  on  most 
insects;  but  some  have  either  kind  alone,  and  a  few  have 
no  eyes  at  all.  The  most  primitive  living  insects  to-day 
have  eyes,  and  the  larvag  of  the  complex  insects  have 
simple  eyes.  Hence,  if  the  highest  individual  in  any 
given  class  repeats  the  life  history  of  the  individuals  below 
it,  it  is  only  fair  to  suppose  that  the  possession  of  eyes  is 
inherent  in  all  insects;  and,  where  there  is  a  lack  of  eyes, 
it  must  be  attributed  to  disease  or  some  other  environ- 
mental conditions  bringing  about  non-development  or 
disuse,  and  therefore  degeneracy  of  the  part  not  used. 

The  compound  eye  is  not  an  aggregation  of  simple 
eyes;  the  two  sorts  of  eyes  differ  in  structure,  and  there  is 
good  evidence  that  they  are  not  derived  from  the  same 
line  of  body  differentiation.  The  compound  eyes  of 
insects  are  two  in  number,  and  are  usually  situated  on  the 
upper  head  areas,  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  middle  line. 
They  are  usually  conspicuous;  in  the  dragon  fly  and  the 
house  fly  they  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
head.  The  dermestidse,  the  pests  of  the  insect  collector, 
count  the  head  of  a  dragon  fly  a  rich  treat  and  will  eat  out 
the  soft  internal  parts,  leaving  the  corneal  facets  quite 
clear.  Many  insects,  as  the  butterflies,  the  dragon  flies 
and  the  house  flies,  have  an  enormous  number  of  facets, 

7 


8 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


in  some  insects  numbering  as  high  as  thirty  thousand. 
Behind  each  facet  is  an  eye  element  which  is  supposed  to 
enter  the  nerve  tract  by  a  separate  nerve  fiber.  .  This  eye 
element  includes  a  cone  of  crystalline  clearness,  with  the 
tapering  end  enveloped  more  or  less  completely  by  pigment. 
Behind  each  cone  are  retinal  cells,  ganglionated  nerve 

cells,  and  nerve  fibers,  all  finally 
passing  into  the  optic  tract,  or 
the  tract  of  the  optic  nerve. 

Each  of  these  eye  elements 
is  supposed  to  perceive  only  that 
part  of  the  object  which  is 
directly  in  front  of  its  surface. 
Since  the  nerve  fibers  pass 
separately  from  each  eye  ele- 
ment into  the  optic  nerve,  it  is 
•nc  possible  that  the  sensations  are 
received  separately  by  the  optic 
lobes  of  the  brain.  Whether 
FIG.  2.— Portion  of  compound  they  are  put  together  by  the 

eye  of  fly,  Calliphora  vomitoria,  interpreting  head  ganglion  to 
radial  section,  c,  cornea;  i,  ins  .  . 

form  an  image  as  in  the  human 

If  the 


pigment;  n,  nerve  fibers;  nc, 
nerve  cells;  r,  retinal  pigment; 
t,  trachea.  (Folsom,  after  Hick- 
son.) 


eye,  is  very  doubtful, 
impressions  are  interpreted 
separately,  the  insect  has  sight 
in  no  such  sense  as  has  the  human  being;  but  the  visual 
impression  must  be  a  composite  of  the  image,  made  up  of 
as  many  parts  as  there  are  corneal  facets  on  the  side  of 
the  head  next  to  the  object.  Such  sight  is  called  mosaic 
sight.  It'  would  follow,  then,  that  insects  whose  eyes  pro- 
ject much  beyond  the  head  contour,  which  possess  the 
largest  number  of  facets,  and  which,  in  addition,  can  turn 
the  head  through  the  greatest  possible  angle,  must  have  the 


SPECIAL  SENSES  OF  INSECTS. 


most  nearly  complete  mosaic  of  the  object  at  which  they 
look,  that  is,  come  nearest  to  seeing  as  we  ourselves  see. 

The  simple  eye  appears  externally  as  a  convex  bead- 
like  object,  and  as  such  is  a  transparent  area  of  the  head 
cuticle,  thickened  so  as  to  protrude  from  the  surface  of 
the  head.  This  makes  a 
lens,  convex  on  the  outer 
side  and  indicating  that, 
by  means  of  the  simple 
eyes,  such  sight  as  the 
insect  has  must  be  near- 
sight.  Through  this  lens 
the  light  rays  pass  to  a 
layer  of  specialized  skin 
cells  with  pigment  pres- 
ent .  Directly  back  of  the 
lens  there  is  also  a  more 
or  less  developed  vitreous 
body,  its  development 
varying  with  the  order  of 
insects.  Fibers  from  the 

Cells  of  the  pigment  layer  FIG.  3.— Median  ocellus  of  honey-bee, 

Apis  mellifera,  in  sagittal  section.  h, 
hypodermis;  /,  lens;  n,  nerve;  p,  iris  pig- 
ment; r,  retinal  cells;  v,  vitreous  body. 

passing    tO    the     Cephalic     (Folsom,  after  Redikorzaw.) 

ganglion. 

The  eye  is  a  part  of  the  nervous  system,  and  the 
nervous  system  arises  as  a  differentiation  of  the  surface 
cells  of  the  animal  of  primitive  type.  For  instance,  in  the 
sponge,  where  the  body  is  like  a  sack,  the  body  consists 
of  three  layers,  two  of  them  in  contact  with  the  water  in 
which  the  sponge  lives.  The  outer  one  of  these  layers, 
the  ectoderm,  discharges  the  functions  of  our  tactile 


merge   into  the  tract  of 
an    optic    nerve    branch 


10  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

corpuscles,  not  to  speak  of  functions  attributed  to  other 
organs  of  ours,  as  those  organs  that  give  us  the  sensations 
of  light  and  darkness,  heat  and  cold,  all  of  them  differ- 
entiated parts  of  our  complex  nervous  system.     The  cells 
of  the  interior  layer  of  the  body,  the  entoderm,  perform 
the  functions  of  our  highly  elaborated  alimentary  system, 
while  the  skeleton  of  the  sponge  is  the  product  of  the 
working  energy  of  the  middle  layer  of  cells,  the  mesoderm. 
This  general  division  of  functions  holds  true  for  other 
animals  from  the  sponge  to  the  complex  animals;  the 
primitive   ground   sense,   not   localized,    but   distributed 
over  the  body  surface  in  the  simple  animal,  becomes  the 
nervous  system  of  the  more  complex  animal  and  is  there 
differentiated   into   touch,    sight,    taste,    hearing,    smell, 
temperature,  and  other  sensations  believed  to  be  inter- 
preted by  the  reflex  or  the  spinal  system.     But  an  organ, 
on  its  first  appearance,  is  little  differentiated  from  the 
surrounding  tissue,   and  only  gradually  reaches  higher 
levels  of  perfectness;  hence  the  simple  eye  is  probably  an 
earlier  expression  of  a  light  sensitive,  chiefly  useful  in 
distinguishing  light  from  darkness;  while  the  compound 
eye  may  be  said  to  represent  a  later  and  more  complex 
organ  of  sight.     The  function  of  the  simple  eye  is  not 
certainly    known.     In    those    animals    which    see    most 
definitively,  that  is,  which  come  nearest  to  forming  a 
perfect  image,  the  simple  eye  has  gone  through  no  develop- 
ment from  its  primitive  structure,  while  the  compound 
eye,  in  these  insects,  has  the  greatest  number  of  facets, 
seeming  to  indicate  that  the  compound  eye  is  the  effective 
organ  of  sight. 

Again,  as  to  the  simple  eye :  wherever  in  any  animal, 
simple  or  complex,  pigment  is  present  in  the  skin  cells, 
those  cells  must  be  sensitive  to  light;  that  they  are  so 


SPECIAL   SENSES    OF   INSECTS.  II 

may  be  proved  in  several  ways.  For  this  reason  scien- 
tists are  disposed  to  regard  the  simple  eye  rather  as  an 
organ  sensitive  to  differences  in  the  amount  of  light  falling 
upon  them.  This  light  sense  is  a  dermal  possession  of 
many  of  the  lower  animals ;  some  of  the  minute  one-celled 
animals  living  in  the  water  respond  to  changes  in  the 
light  intensity.  The  earthworm,  with  no  eyes  at  all,  is 
sensible  of  the  fact  that  it  has  come  above  ground,  and 
turns  downward  again.  Your  own  skin,  exposed  to  sun- 
light, responds  to  the  action  of  the  light  without  any 
volition  of  yours,  and  you  say  that  you  freckle  or  tan. 
Bees  sometimes  know  their  hive  by  the  color;  whether  this 
sense  plays  any  part  in  the  wonderful  "homing  instinct" 
of  these  insects  is  not  certain,  but  they  use  this  sense  in 
seeking  food,  as  do  many  other  animals,  insomuch  that 
we  say  bees  prefer  certain  colors  of  flowers,  while  flies  as  a 
rule  prefer  other  colors.  It  seems  likely  that  butterflies' 
bright  colors  are  useful  as  recognition  marks  to  guide 
others  of  their  kind.  A  clue  as  to  the  other  possible  uses 
of  bright  markings  on  butterflies'  wings  may  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  wings  of  old  butterflies  are  frayed  and 
often  have  pieces  torn  from  them,  as  if  bird  enemies  had 
aimed  for  the  wing  spot  instead  of  for  some  more  vital 
part. 

Smell. 

Smell  is  a  sense  highly  developed  among  insects. 
Among  bees  and  ants  the  development  of  this  sense  seems 
not  equalled  elsewhere  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Who 
has  not  at  some  time  seen  ants  swarm  in  from  some  un- 
known place  toward  the  sugar  jar  or  the  plate  of  frosted 
cake?  It  could  not  have  been  chance,  for  their  path  led 
through  many  difficulties.  Honey  bees  have  been 


12 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


known  to  find  a  plate  of  honey  left  on  the  kitchen  table. 
A  human  being  could  hardly  have  smelled  the  honey  at 
close  range.  In  the  case  of  human  beings,  the  olfactory 
nerve  of  one  person  may  carry  stimuli  for  certain  odors, 
and  not  be  at  all  responsive  for  other  odors.  Again,  it  is 
difficult  for  a  human  being  to  discriminate  between 

odors  somewhat  similar,  as  odors 
of  different  flowers,  different  teas, 
or  different  foods.  Personal  clean- 
liness generally  obliterates  for  us 
any  olfactory  recognition  mark  of 
our  own  race ;  and  yet  the  approach 
of  a  member  of  a  different  race  is 
an  instant  olfactory  suggestion. 

Out  of  all  this  must  come  this 
concession :  the  fact  that  we  do  not 
perceive  an  odor  does  not  prove 
that  the  olfactory  sense  of  some 
other  living  being  may  not  respond 
to  it.  .  - 

The  immediate  smelling  organs 
in  the  case  of  insects  are  exceedingly 
small  papillae  or  pits,  at  the  bottom 
of  which  a  fiber  from  the  olfactory  lobe  of  the  brain 
ganglion  is  spread  under  the  thin  body  tegument.  These 
organs  are  often  found  on  the  antennae.  Carrion  beetles 
have  what  seem  to  be  unmistakably  olfactory  organs  on 
their  antennae  and  also  on  their  palpi.  Flesh  flies,  which 
are  so  often  attracted  considerable  distances  by  the  odor 
of  decaying  meat,  lose  this  means  of  finding  their  food 
after  their  antennae  are  removed  (Hauser).  Many 
moths  use  this  sense  as  a  means  of  recognition  of  the  other 
sex,  and  have  been  proved  by  experiment  to  be  unable 


FIG.  4. — Antenna  of  a 
burying  beetle,  Necrophorus 
Americanus,  showing  sense 
pits  in  end  segments. 


SPECIAL  SENSES  OF  INSECTS.  13 

to  find  their  mates  when  the  antennae  have  been  removed 
or  coated.  On  the  wings  of  the  big  red-brown  monarch 
butterfly  are  pockets  in  which  are  carried  scent  scales. 
Ants  are  thought  to  be  able  to  perceive  odors  in  so  far 
as  to  recognize  members  of  their  own  colony,  the  path 
over  which  a  nest-mate  has  passed  or  which  they  them- 
selves have  recently  traversed,  and  to  know  an  enemy 
by  the  fact  that  the  new  ant  smells  different  from  their 
nest-mates. 

There  are  plenty  of  instances  which  might  be  cited 
to  prove  that  man  is  really  inferior  to  many  of  the  lower 
animals  in  the  small  range  of  discrimination  possible  in 
his  olfactory  sense.  The  elephant,  the  deer,  the  fox, 
the  wolf,  the  dog,  all  bear  evidence  to  an  olfactory  sense 
wonderful  in  its  development.  Our  impressions  of 
delight,  aversion;  comfort,  danger;  friend,  foe,  are  more 
often  the  result  of  mental  processes.  In  most  affairs  of 
life  we  think  why  we  should  feel,  rather  than  instinctively 
feel  without  thinking.  Yet,  in  cases  so  new  that  no 
previous  experience  could  reason  out  an  explanation,  we 
may  act  from  instinctive  feeling — we  say  that  we  scent 
danger.  There  is  no  question  that  this  sense  played  an 
important  part  in  the  life  of  primitive  man  as  it  does  to- 
day in  the  preservation  of  lower  animals.  It  is  certain 
that  some  insects,  at  least,  if  not  the  majority  of  them, 
find  their  food  by  the  sense  of  smell.  The  food-getting 
instinct  is  probably  the  lowest  though  the  most  valuable 
of  the  instincts,  and  the  sense  of  smell  is  surely  one  of  its 
valuable  servants. 

Touch. 

The  sense  of  touch  is,  with  human  beings,  entirely  a 
superficial  sense,  a  contact  sense,  capable  of  stimulation 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


through  specialized  cells  lying  just  under  the  epidermis, 
more  abundantly  scattered  in  some  portions  of  the  body 
than  in  others.  We  do  not  feel  at  all  just  over  the  elbow- 
joint,  and  much  less  feebly  on  the  cheek  than  on  the  lips. 
But  there  are  other  means  of  contact  sense.  Close  your 
eyes  and  let  some  friend  touch  one  of  the  hairs  on  the 
back  of  your  hand  or  arm,  and  you  have  the  immediate 

sensation  of  having 
been  touched.  A  fine 
nerve  at  the  base  of 
this  hair  communi- 
cated to  your  brain  the 
stimulus  of  contact. 
In  this  latter  way, 
insects  are  provided 
abundantly  with  the 
contact  sense.  (Fig.  5.) 
Catch  a  house  fly,  and 
you  will  find  a  number 
of  stiffish  hairs  on  the 
surface  of  the  body.  Lightly  touch  one  of  these  hairs, 
and  you  may  be  able  to  prove  to  yourself  that  they  are 
actually  tactile  hairs.  Most  insects  have  these  hairs  in 
greater  or  less  abundance.  There  are  hairs  on  some  insects 
which  serve  other  purposes,  such  as  the  stiff  hairs  on  the 
hind  legs  of  some  of  the  swimming  beetles,  or  the  auditory 
hairs,  but  possibly  even  these  are  contact  sense  organs  in 
addition  to  their  other  use.  Where  the  body  wall  of  an  in- 
sect is  thickly  chitinized,  unless  the  chitin  armor  is  pierced 
by  one  of  these  hairs,  the  insect  seems  feebly,  if  at  all, 
sensitive  to  touch.  A  praying  mantis  on  the  desk  of  the 
author  was  exploring  a  bunch  of  golden-rod,  and  was 
confronted  by  a  woolly  bear,  one  of  the  hairy  brown  cater- 


C.O. 


FIG.  5. — Diagram  showing  innervation  of 
a  tactile  hair,  ch,  chitinized  cuticle;  hyp, 
cellular  layer  of  skin;  sc,  ganglion  cell;  cot 
ganglion  of  central  nervous  system.  (Kellogg, 
after  vom  Rath.} 


SPECIAL  SENSES  OF  INSECTS.  15 

pillars  with  a  broad  black  band  around  its  body.  The 
mantis  put  up  her  front  feet  in  the  usual  attitude  and 
the  caterpillar  promptly  took  hold  of  the  tarsi.  Nothing 
happened  until  the  caterpillar  bit  viciously  at  the  mantis' s 
foot,  when  she  jerked  her  foot  away  and  ran  off,  going  on 
five  legs  and  holding  up  the  sixth,  much  as  a  dog  holds  up 
an  injured  member. 

In  an  insect  the  tiny  nerve  at  the  apex  of  the  hair 
runs  down  under  the  skin  to  a  knot  of  nervous  matter, 
and  from  there  a  nerve  fiber  runs  to  a  nerve  ganglion  for 
that  particular  segment  on  which  the  hair  is  located. 
The  ganglion  is  a  part  of  the  whole  nervous  system,  as 
will  be  proved  by  the-fact  that  the  insect  may  will  to  run 
away  as  the  result  of  this  excitation  of  one  of  its  tactile 
hairs,  or  it  may  will  to  turn  about  and  show  fight.  Try 
this  on  a  caterpillar,  removing  as  far  as  possible  the 
chance  of  its  seeing  you  and  thus  becoming  frightened  in 
that  way. 

This  is  different  from  the  usual  conception  of  the 
human  nervous  system,  where  all  impressions  are  sup- 
posed to  be  referred  to  the  forward  end  of  the  nerve  axis— 
the  brain — for  interpretation.  But  we  are  coming  to 
realize,  through  more  intelligent  study,  that  there  are 
plenty  of  stimuli  coming  in  upon  our  nervous  system, 
which  are  interpreted  before  reaching  the  cerebrum;  in 
fact,  so  far  as  late  investigators  can  determine,  some 
stimuli  never  reach  the  brain  at  all,  but  pass  into  action 
upon  being  interpreted  elsewhere.  This,  being  true, 
proves  again  the  similarity  of  life  activities.  Our  life 
is,  at  foundation,  of  the  same  sort  as  the  life  of  these  sim- 
pler creatures ;  only  in  us  it  finds  more  varied  means  of 
expression. 


i6 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


Taste. 

The  taste  organs  of  insects  occur  in  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  on  the  mouth  appendages,  especially  on  the 
palpi.  (Fig.  6.)  As  with  the  human  tribe,  the  substance 
to  be  tasted  must  be  dissolved  and  the  solution  must  be 
brought  into  contact  with  the  special  taste  buds.  Hence 

it  is  necessary  that  the  insect 
shall  dissolve  its  food  in  the 
mouth  fluids;  the  taste  organs, 
then,  are  so  situated  that  they 
can  be  brought  into  the  mouth 
to  explore  the  food  or  to  subject 
the  food  to  trial  before  it  passes 
into  the  mouth.  It  is  not  likely, 
however,  that  insects  are  com- 
pelled to  depend  entirely  upon 
the  method  of  trial  and  error  in 
choosing  their  food .  This  would , 
of  course,  be  true  if  the  insects 
were  confronted  with  a  kind  of 
food  entirely  new  in  the  life 
history  of  their  kind;  but  where 
an  insect  has  been  hatched  into 
the  environment  in  which  its 
for  many  generations,  it  comes 
into  life  with  inherited  tendencies  toward  foods  that 
have  nourished  its  ancestors,  and  against  foods  that  its 
ancestors  have  found  distasteful  or  harmful,  or  strange. 
Perhaps,  as  with  the  human  family,  the  sense  of  taste 
contributes  to  the  relish  or  the  pleasure  incident  to  the 
act  of  eating,  and,  therefore,  to  the  secretion  of  the  digest- 
ive juices.  However  that  may  be,  the  palpi  may  be 
observed  in  active  motion  during  the  whole  time  a 


FIG.  6. — Nerve  endings  in  tip 
of  labial  palpus  of  a  fish  moth. 
(Kellogg,  after  vom  Rath;  greatly 
magnified.) 

ancestors    have    lived 


SPECIAL    SENSES    OF    INSECTS.  IJ 

grasshopper  is  devouring  its  grass  blade  or  the  potato 
beetle  its  wrinkly  potato  leaf.  This  may  be  watched 
through  a  reading  glass  any  day  you  find  a  leaf-eating 
insect  at  its  meals. 

Hearing. 

That  the  fifth  of  our  senses  is  also  possessed  by  many 
insects  is  easier  to  believe  than  to  prove.  Anyone  who 
has  ever  listened  to  call  and  response  of  half  a  dozen  katy- 


FIG.  7. — Inner  aspect  of  right  tympanal  sense  organ  of  a  grasshopper, 
Caloptenus  italicus.  b,  chitinous  border;  c,  closing  muscle  of  spiracle;  gn, 
ganglion;  m,  tympanum;  n,  nerve;  0,  opening  muscle  of  spiracle;  p,p,  processes 
resting  against  tympanum;  s,  spiracle;  tm,  tensor  muscle  of  tympanum;  v, 
vesicle.  (Folsom,  after  Graber.) 

dids,  or  to  two  or  three  cicadas  gossiping  back  and  forth 
on  a  July  afternoon,  with  their  musical  "Ah- we — ah-we— 
ah-we — ah-we-e-e-e-e-e !"  does  not  lack  proof  in  his  own 
mind  that  insects  hear  and  make  answer  to  what  is  heard. 


i8 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


FIG.  8. — Locust  from  lateral  aspect  (left 
wings  removed),  showing  (ao)  auditory  organ. 
(Kellogg.) 


This  may  be  called  negative  proof  of  the  power  of  hearing ; 

but  there  is  also  positive  proof  in  the  discovery  of  the  pos- 
session of  auditory 
organs  by  many  in- 
sects. (Fig.  7.)  Our 
common  grasshop- 
pers, katydids, 
crickets,  and  mosqui- 
toes have  such  or- 
gans. As  with  the 
other  senses  of  in- 
sects, we  find  the 

organ  of  this  sense  in  several  different  parts  of  the  bodies 

of  these  simple  animals.      The  higher  animals   we   call 

higher  because  of  the  centralization  of  related  functions; 

and  that  centralization 

has  meant  the  concen- 
tration of  many  formerly 

distributed   senses   into 

one  ganglion  or  knot  of 

our     nerve     cord — the 

brain.    The  low  animals, 

then,   are    the   ones  in 

which  these  senses  are 

most   widely   separated 

as  to  locality  and  least 

differentiated  as  to  kind.  FIG.  9. — Diagram  of  longitudinal  section 
This  might  be  Said  through  ^rst  anc*  seconcl  antennal  segments 
r '  -i  ,  of  a  mosquito,  male,  showing  complex  audi- 

lurtner:tfie  more  closely  toryorgan  composed  of  fine  chitinous  rods, 

related  in  point  Of  pOSl-  nerve  fibers,  and  nerve  cells.  (Kellogg,  after 
tion  these  Sense  Organs  Child;  greatly  magnified.) 

are  to  the  brain,  the  higher  the  insect  in  the  scale  of  life 
development. 


SPECIAL  SENSES  OF  INSECTS. 


The  ear  of  a  locust  may  be  found  by  first  killing  one 
of  them,  and  then  clipping  off  the  front  and  the  hind  wing 
from  one  side  of  the  body,  when  the  ear  drum  may  be 
seen  as  a  thin,  white  membrane  on  the  first  segment  of  the 
abdomen.  Underneath  this  membrane  or  drum  is  a 
tiny  sack  filled  with  a  liquid,  and  against  the  inner  wall 
of  this  sack  rests  a  fine  nerve-ending  from  which  a  slender 


A  O     B 

FIG.  10. — Antennae  of  mosquito,  Culex  pipiens.     A,  male;  B,  female.     (Folsom.) 

conducting  fiber  runs  to  the  ganglion  for  that  abdominal 
segment.  (Fig.  9.)  Mosquitoes  hear  by  means  of  their 
antennae,  on  which  are  thickly  distributed  many  fine  hairs 
whose  roots  lie  in  a  mass  of  delicate  perceiving  matter, 
composed  of  chitin  rods,  nerve  fibers,  and  ganglionated 
nerve  cells,  and  which  give  to  the  mosquito  the  power  of 
perceiving  sounds.  (Fig.  10.) 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  VITAL  PROCESSES. 

Respiration. 

In  insects,  as  in  all  animals,  a  renewed  supply  of 
oxygen  is  necessary  to  supply  the  energy  used  up  in  all 
the  forms  of  bodily  activity,  as  well  as  to  analyze  the  food 
into  tissue-building  products.  But  insects  have  no 
lungs,  nor  any  suggestion  of  an  oxygenating  center 
communicating  with  a  blood  center  where  the  oxygenation 
of  the  food-laden  blood  is  accomplished.  Neither  does 
the  air  enter  the  insect's  body  through  an  opening  in  the 
head.  Indeed,  the  respiratory  system  of  an  insect  is 
rather  a  sack  closed  at  the  head  end.  The  respiratory 
system  of  an  insect  is  much  more  complex  than  that  of 
human  beings.  It  consists  of  a  system  of  air  tubes 
much  resembling  the  windpipe  of  a  bird,  but  branching 
so  many  times  as  to  become  delicate  enough  to  carry 
the  air  directly  to  the  finest  subdivision  of  any  tissue  of 
the  insect's  body,  going  in  between  the  eye  elements, 
driving  their  load  of  air  inside  the  wing  sacks,  in  between 
the  leg  muscles,  even  down  to  the  delicate  tarsal  and 
antennal  segments.  It  is  thought  by  some  histologists 
that  the  ultimately  fine  tracheal  tubes  may  enter  a  cell 
itself  and  oxygenate  the  protoplasm. 

On  account  of  the  usual  rigidity  of  the  head  and  the 
thoracic  segments,  the  respiratory  movements  can  hardly 
be  noticed  in  these  parts  of  the  body  of  most  insects. 
But  the  abdominal  segments  move  much  more  freely 

20 


THE   VITAL   PROCESSES. 


21 


upon  each  other,  and  here  the  breathing  of  the  insect 
may  easily  be  studied.  Catch  a  grasshopper,  and 
holding  it  by  the  hind  legs 
with  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger notice  the  alternate 
contraction  and  expansion 
of  the  abdomen.  With  the 
reading  glass,  look  along 
the  sides  of  the  abdomen, 
and  minute  openings  may 
be  found,  usually  outlined 
with  some  different  color. 
These  are  the  openings,  or 
rather  the  entrances,  of  the 
respiratory  system — spira- 
cles— one  on  either  side  of 
the  body  for  each  segment 
of  the  abdomen.  Through 
these  spiracles  the  balance 
between  carbon  dioxid  and 
oxygen  must  be  preserved. 
Hence,  if  you  wish  to  kill 
an  insect  for  your  collec- 
tion box,  by  means  of  some 
poisonous  gas,  you  cannot 
do  it  by  holding  its  ^  antenna;  bj  brain;  ^  leg.  n,  nerve  cord; 

"nose,"     but    by    applying  p,  palpus;  .y,  spiracle;^,  spiracular  or  stig- 
the      gas     tO     its     abdomen    matal  branch;  '>  main  tracheal  trunk;  v, 

and  its  thorax,  where  the 
openings  into  its  respira- 
tory system  are  found.  (Fig.  n.)  Inward  from  each 
spiracle,  a  tracheal  tube  leads  to  a  main  trunk  of  the 
system,  of  which  there  are  two,  one  along  each  side  of  the 


FIG.  ii. — Trac heal  system  of  an  insect. 


ventral    branch ;    vs, 
(Folsom,  after  Kolbe.) 


dsceral      branch. 


22  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

body.  From  this  main  trunk  there  arise  in  each  segment 
three  sets  of  branches:  the  branch  going  upward  to 
supply  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  the  wings ;  the  visceral 
branch,  running  interiorly  and  supplying  the  organs  of 
the  alimentary  tract,  the  kidneys,  and  the  reproductive 
organs;  and  the  ventral  branch,  which  carries  air  to  the 
ventral  ganglia,  the  ventral  muscles,  and  the  legs.  In 

some  insects  these  spiracles 
are  protected  from  dust  and 
other  foreign  substances 
much  as  our  noses  are,  by 
fine  hairs;  in  others  a  tiny 
flap  of  chitin  closes  the  open- 
ing; in  some  others  the  wing 
covers  bend  down  over  the 
line  of  spiracles;  but  in  other 
insects,  as  in  the  order  of  the 
bugs,  there  seems  to  be  no 
protection  whatever. 

In  insects  which  are  very 

FIG.  12. — Lateral  gill  from  abdomen          «r.      n-  .1 

.       A,  u     XT         •    swift    fliers    there    are,    lust 

of    a    May    fly    nymph,    Hexagema  J 

variabiiis.  Enlarged.  (Fohom.)  under  the  chitin  body  cover- 
ing, tracheal  pockets,  or  en- 
largements of  these  air  conductors;  these  are  supposed 
to  be  for  the  storing  of  a  reserve  supply  of  air  which  may 
be  drawn  upon  by  the  insect  during  the  long,  swift  flights 
which  use  up  so  much  oxygen. 

In  aquatic  insects,  or  nymphs  of  insects  which  later 
become  air  breathers,  the  spiracles  are  not  present  at 
first,  and  the  animal  breathes  while  in  the  water  by 
means  of  tracheal  gills,  developing  the  spiracular  system 
much  later.  These  gills  present  to  the  water  an  extensive 
surface  with  a  thin  tegument,  and  under  which  the  tracheae 


THE    VITAL   PROCESSES.  23 

branch  to  form  a  network  of  tubes ;  through  the  tegument 
covering  the  tracheae  the  gaseous  interchange  of  carbon 
dioxid  for  oxygen  takes  place.  The  rate  of  respiration 
varies  with  the  activity  of  the  insect,  with  the  temperature, 
and  with  other  bodily  conditions.  The  respiratory 
movements  are  mainly  reflex,  each  thoracic  and  abdomi- 
nal ganglion  acting  as  a  center  for  the  respiratory  move- 
ments of  that  particular  segment. 

Circulation  of  the  Blood. 

In  birds  and  mammals,  contact  of  the  blood  with 
the  air — that  is,  the  combining  of  the  C,  H,  and  O  of  the 
fats,  the  amyloids,  and  the  waste  tissue  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air — takes  place  in  a  localized  region  of  the  body, 
the  lungs,  from  which  the  oxygenated  blood  is  sent  back 
to  the  blood  center — the  heart — to  be  driven  to  all  parts 
of  the  body.  Hence,  in  these  divisions  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  there  is  a  distinct  and  closed  vascular  system 
making  a  complete  double  circulation.  In  insects  there 
is  no  such  vascular  system  and  no  definitely  prescribed 
round  of  the  blood  in  tubes. 

Just  underneath  the  chitinized  dorsal  wall  of  the 
insect's  body,  lies  a  long  pulsating  organ  having  several 
chambers  provided  with  valves;  it  is  open  at  both  ends 
and  at  the  sides  between  the  chambers.  This  may  be 
called  the  heart,  and  it  does  not  connect  with  any  net- 
work of  tubes  carrying  foul  and  aerated  blood,  as  in  the 
human  animal;  but,  instead,  its  pulsations  are  so  per- 
formed as  to  direct  the  current  of  blood  forward  toward 
the  front  end  of  the  body,  emptying  itself  in  the  head, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  blood  then  in  the  posterior 
end  or  at  the  sides  is  drawn  into  the  long  pulsating  heart. 
No  air  reaches  this  heart,  except  such  as  may  remain  in 


24  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

the  blood  which  is  then  drawn  in,  hence  the  blood  must 
be  aerated  elsewhere.  The  respiratory  system  is  made 
to  conform  to  the  needs  of  this  rudimentary  vascular 
system.  The  tracheae,  penetrating  as  they  do  the  intra- 
muscular spaces  of  the  body,  provide  the  means  for 
bringing  the  air  into  contact  with  the  blood.  The  blood 
bathes  all  the  tissues  of  the  body,  fills  all  spaces  not 
filled  by  the  organs,  and  even  bathes  the  cells  of  those 
organs;  hence,  wherever  a  trachea  empties  out  its  air, 
the  blood  there  present  is  oxygenated.  The  general  blood 
movement  is,  then,  forward  through  the  tissues,  till  it 
finally  works  its  way  around  through  the  general  body 
spaces  and  passes  backward,  following  the  body  contour 
lines,  to  re-enter  the  heart  again  at  its  rear  or  sides. 

Alimentation. 

In  man,  the  alimentary  canal,  beginning  at  the 
mouth,  is  modified  into  mouth,  oesophagus,  stomach, 
small  intestine,  large  intestine,  with  the  familiar  three 
modifications  of  the  last-named,  the  unassimilated 
residue  finding  exit  at  the  anus.  In  different  parts  of 
this  long  canal  are  secreted  and  discharged  into  the  food 
there  present,  the  various  fluids  whose  function  is  the 
reduction  of  the  solid  foods  taken,  to  liquid  form,  suitable 
for  the  building  of  new  body  cells  or  the  rejuvenation 
of  over- worked  cells.  This  process  of  reduction  is  diges- 
tion, and  the  various  fluids  may  be  named:  as  saliva, 
whose  active  principle  is  ptyalin;  pepsin,  trypsin,  pan- 
creatin,  steapsin,  etc. 

In  insects  the  simplest  alimentary  canal  is  that  of 
the  primitive  insects,  in  which  it  is  merely  a  nearly 
straight  tube,  constricted  at  either  end,  and  enlarged 
in  the  middle  into  a  main  digestive  cavity  with  muscular 


THE    VITAL   PROCESSES. 


walls;  this  latter  corresponds  to  our  stomach.  It  is 
separated  from  the  fore  and  hind  portions  of  the  canal  by 
rudimentary  valves, 
which  are  simple  ex- 
trusions of  the  wall  of 
one  cavity  into  the 
opening  of  the  next 
cavity,  and  whose 
loose  edges  prevent 
the  return  of  mate- 
rial. In  such  insects 
the  food  is  soft  as  to 
its  substance  and  not 
varied  in  its  nature. 
Hence  there  is  no 
need  of  special  gland- 
ular extensions  of  the 
canal.  In  insects 
whose  food  is  of  more 
solid  nature  or  more 
varied  in  its  charac- 
ter, more  modifica- 
tions of  the  canal  are 
necessary  for  the  se- 
cretion of  fluids 
needed  in  the  diges- 

-  .       1  FIG.  13. — Digestive  system  of  a  beetle,  Carabus. 

tion  of  particular  por-  a>  anal  gland.  c  (of  fore  gut)>  crop.  c  (of  hind 

of  the  food,  and  gut),  colon,  merging  into  rectum;  d,  evacuating 
duct  of  anal  gland;  g,  gastric  caeca;  i,  ileum;  m, 
mid  intestine;  mt,  Malpighian  tubes;  o,  cesoph- 


for   the   retention  of 


the    food  long  enough    agus;    p,  proventriculus;  r,  reservoir.     (Folsom, 

to     let     it     become  after  Kolbe^ 

thoroughly  permeated  with  these  fluids.     In  many  insects 

this  is  accomplished  by  the  crop  and  the  proventriculus, 


26  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

two  extensions  of  the  canal  between  the  oesophagus  and 
the  stomach.  (Fig.  13.) 

In  the  human  being  the  food  is  mixed  with  the  saliva 
while  it  is  in  the  mouth ;  in  the  bird,  the  food  is  swallowed 
dry  or  whole,  and  this  mixing  with  the  saliva  is  accom- 
plished in  the  crop.  Peptonization  is  accomplished  for 
birds  and  for  many  insects  by  a  second  enlargement, 
which  has  already  been  spoken  of,  just  below  the  crop. 
In  insects,  the  salivary  glands  may  be  restricted  to  the 
head  and  the  saliva  be  discharged  from  there  into  the 
mouth;  or  the  glands  may  extend  backward  into  the 
thorax.  In  connection  with  the  salivary  glands,  there 
may  be  poison  glands  in  such  insects  as  are  predatory 
or  carnivorous,  and  also  in  spiders. 

In  the  honey  bee  and  the  honey  ant,  also,  this  crop 
or .  fore-stomach  serves  as  a  temporary  storage  cavity  for 
the  liquid  foods  which  have  been  eaten  by  the  bee  or  the 
ant,  or  brought  to  the  nest  bee  or  ant  by  some  foraging 
bee  or  ant.  The  cavity  is  separated  from  the  true  stomach 
by  extruding  flaps  or  outfoldings  of  its  walls  into  the 
cavity  of  the  true  stomach;  and  the  food  swallowed  is 
thus  kept  indefinitely  or  let  out  either  forward  or  back- 
ward by  the  voluntary  effort  of  the  insect.  Such  insects, 
like  some  birds,  feed  their  young  by  regurgitation.  Such 
preparation  of  the  food  as  part  of  the  alimentation  of  the 
parent  is  evidence  of  their  high  position  in  the  scale  of 
life,  and  of  their  close  relationship  to  the  mammals,  the 
highest  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

In  carnivorous  insects  this  crop  is  a  dilation  of  the 
canal  axis;  but  in  the  Neuroptera  and  the  butter- 
flies, bees,  wasps,  ants,  and  the  flies,  this  salivary 
extension  of  the  canal  is  a  lateral  pocket,  and  serves 
in  all  of  them  for  the  temporary  storage  of  food  just 


THE   VITAL   PROCESSES.  27 

swallowed  until  it  can  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
digestive  fluid. 

The  stomach  of  an  insect,  instead  of  serving  as  does 
our  stomach,  as  a  means  of  separating  the  solid  foods 
into  minute  portions  as  well  as  mixing  them  with  the  pep- 
sin, is  more  like  an  intestine;  it  has  not  the  capacity  for 
strong  muscular  action,  such  as  has  the  preventriculus  or 
gizzard.  Considerable  secretion  of  digestive  fluids  takes 
place  here,  as  well  as  the  absorption  of  the  prepared  food 
mass. 

The  portion  of  the  canal  behind  the  stomach  is,  in 
some  insects,  modified  into  regions  much  like  the  divisions 
of  the  large  intestine  of  the  human  animal,  and  named 
like  them,  colon,  ileum,  and  rectum.  In  the  primitive 
insect  there  are  no  such  divisions  apparent ;  and  in  many 
others  the  colon  or  first  division  is  absent.  In  human 
alimentation  the  food  current,  in  process  of  elaboration, 
is  supplied  by  the  mesenteries  with  the  amoeboid  cells, 
which  play  so  important  a  part  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
health  of  the  body  by  devouring  the  microbes  of  various 
diseases.  In  many  insects  this  function  seems  to  be 
performed  by  cells  of  the  lining  wall  of  the  stomach,  which 
become  free  by  constriction  and  float  out  free  in  the  food 
current. 

The  excretory  function  of  the  kidneys  seems  to  be 
discharged  by  the  Malpighian  tubes  of  the  insect,  which 
open  into  the  intestine  behind  the  stomach.  In  the 
human  animal  there  is  no  aeration  of  the  food  current 
until,  after  having  been  gathered  from  the  capillaries  of 
the  stomach  and  the  intestines,  from  the  lacteals,  and 
from  the  liver,  into  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  it  is  sent 
to  the  lungs  where  it  is  oxygenated,  and,  being  returned  to 
the  left  side  of  the  heart,  it  is  sent  to  all  the  waiting  tissues 


28  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

of  the  body.  But  in  insects,  so  far  as  investigation  has 
shown,  the  aerating  system  of  air  tubes  touches  the  ali- 
mentary canal  only  at  the  region  where  the  Malpighian 
tubes  are  liberally  supplied  with  tracheae.  In  the  human 
body,  waste  liberation  is  accomplished  through  the  lungs 
(gaseous)  and  through  the  kidneys  (liquid).  In  insects, 
through  the  aeration  of  the  Malpighian  tubes,  that  is 
the  kidney  region,  the  two  sorts  of  waste  liberation  may 
reinforce  each  other.  As  to  the  remaining  waste  libera- 
tion, not  accomplished  by  the  Malpighian  tubes,  the  fat 
body  of  the  insect,  lying  along  the  alimentary  canal  and 
the  dorsal  heart,  also  acts  as  a  waste  eliminator,  and  in 
some  insects  acts  as  a  storage  tract  for  the  deposit  of 
waste ;  especially  is  this  true  where  the  insect  is  a  primitive 
insect  and  there  are  no  Malpighian  tubes.  The  blood  of 
insects,  which  is  more  like  the  lymphatic  fluid  of  the 
human  animal,  contains  many  fat  globules,  indicating  a 
connection  between  this  fat  body  and  the  circulation  of 
the  blood. 

Nervous  System. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  larva  of  an  insect,  if  we 
select  an  insect  having  complete  metamorphosis,  as  a 
butterfly,  is  a  type  of  a  simple  nervous  system,  one 
nervous  ganglion  for  each  segment  of  the  body,  joined  by 
a  double  cord,  and  lying  in  the  middle  line  of  the  body 
ventrally.  As  the  adult  stage  is  approached,  there  is 
more  or  less  of  fusing  of  these  ganglia  in  all  the  different 
orders  of  insects;  but  in  an  adult  butterfly  the  front  end 
of  the  nerve  chain  becomes  modified  into  two  ganglia, 
one  lying  a  little  forward  called  the  brain  or  cephalic 
ganglion,  and  the  other  lying  a  little  below  the  brain  and 
called  the  suboesophageal  ganglion.  The  brain  supplies 


THE    VITAL   PROCESSES.  29 

with  nerves  the  simple  eyes,  the  compound  eyes,  and  the 
antennas.  The  subcesophageal  ganglion  sends  nerves 
to  the  mouth  parts,  and  is  itself  connected  with  the  brain 
by  a  pair  of  cords  between  which  the  oesophagus  passes. 
On  back  from  the  subcesophageal  ganglion  the  nerve 
chain  passes  into  the  thorax,  where  there  is  one  fused 
ganglion  representing  several  larval  segments.  This 


FIG.  14. — Stages  in  development  of  nervous  system  of  a  water  beetle. 
Mcilius  sulcatus;  showing  ventral  nerve  cord  in  earliest  larval  stage,  and,  7,  the 
system  in  the  adult.  (Kellogg,  after  Brandt;  much  enlarged.) 

supplies  with  nerves  the  wings,  the  legs,  and  the  many 
thoracic  muscles.  In  the  abdomen  there  is  usually  one 
ganglion  for  each  segment,  the  nerve  chain  terminating 
in  several  fibrillae  in  the  last  segment.  (Fig.  14.) 

Lying  above  the  oesophagus,  and  having  its  origin  in 
front  of  the  brain,  there  lies  the  sympathetic  system. 
This,  by  means  of  two  pairs  of  ganglia,  controls  those 
activities  which  are  safely  automatic — respiration,  the 
action  of  the  dorsal  heart,  and  the  usual  processes  of 


3<D  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

alimentation.  This  sympathetic  system  connects  with 
the  brain  in  the  region  of  the  cords  leading  to  the  brain 
from  the  subcesophageal  ganglion.  A  central  nerve 
also  runs  backward  in  the  middle  line  of  the  thorax  and 
the  abdomen,  supplying  with  nerves  mainly  the  spiracular 
system,  but  also  sending  nerves  to  the  muscles  of  the 
abdomen  and  the  thorax  to  some  extent,  making  their 


FIG.  15. — Successive  stages  in  the  concentration  of  the  central  nervous 
system  of  Diptera.  A,  Chironomus;  Bt  Empis;  C,  Tabanus;  D,  Sarcophaga. 
(Folsom,  after  Brandt.) 


movements  partly  reflex.  A  grasshopper's  head  severed 
from  the  thorax  remains  sensitive  for  some  time,  and 
will  move  when  irritated.  An  insect  with  its  brain 
removed  will  eat  and  digest  its  food  if  that  food  be 
brought  into  contact  with  its  mouth  parts. 

Those  insects  whose  adult  nervous  system  is  least 
differentiated,  i.  e.,  consists  of  one  ganglion  for  each  body 
segment,  represent  the  lowest  type  of  insect  life.  Fusion 
of  ganglia  and  centralization  of  functions,  signify  advance 
in  nervous  perception,  and  indicate  higher  types  of  insect 


THE    VITAL   PROCESSES.  31 

life.  Thus  the  adult  butterfly  is  more  highly  organized 
nervously  than  it  was  in  the  caterpillar  stage.  (Fig.  15.) 
Similarly,  the  bees  and  the  flies,  with  their  fused  ganglia  in 
the  three  regions  of  the  body  and  the  attendant  centraliza- 
tion of  functions  in  those  fused  ganglia,  are  to  be  reckoned 
as  more  highly  organized  living  beings  than  are  the  locusts 
with  their  much  more  nearly  similar  and  segmentally 
arranged  ganglia.  Examination  of  a  series  of  animals 
from  the  simple  toward  the  complex  shows  one  other  fact 
of  nervous  organization.  The  upward  series  shows  a 
tendency  not  only  toward  this  fusion  of  ganglia  and  cen- 
tralization of  functions,  but  also  to  place  the  emphasis 
upon  the  cephalic  ganglion,  centralizing  in  it  the  percep- 
tion of  stimuli  which,  lower  in  the  series,  were  either  dis- 
tributed to  other  parts  of  the  body  for  interpretation,  or 
were  not  differentiated  from  each  other;  as  hearing,  tast- 
ing, and  the  contact  sense. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
DEVELOPMENT  AND  METAMORPHOSIS. 

Every  animal  develops  from  a  single  cell;  and,  when 
that  cell  is  enclosed  in  some  characteristic  wall  or  cover- 
ing, is  accompanied  by  more  or  less  of  reserve  food  or  yolk, 
and  undergoes  a  resting  period  of  greater  or  less  length, 
we  call  the  cell  an  egg.  That  insects  come  from  eggs  is 
almost  as  familiar  a  fact  as  the  insects  themselves.  But 
the  average  student  of  nature  usually  stops  there,  and 
knows^  little  or  nothing  of  the  changes  undergone  by  the 
grasshopper,  the  butterfly,  or  the  firefly  before  the  adult 
insect  appears.  Many  of  us  have  found  grubs  without 
knowing  that  they  are  a  stage  in  the  life  of  some  beetle. 
The  various  cocoons  found  hanging  to  some  twig  or  weed 
or  tree  are  interesting,  without  impressing  us  as  only  one 
stage  in  the  life  of  some  gay  butterfly  or  somber  moth. 
Worms  are  "just  worms"  for  most  of  us,  nasty  horrid 
things  that  do  nothing  but  eat  up  our  flowers  or  gardens 
or  trees;  yet  even  the  worst  one  among  them  will  disap- 
pear from  our  sight,  and  if  we  had  the  desire  we  could 
trace  it  to  its  winter  quarters,  mark  the  place,  and  the 
next  spring  we  should  be  rewarded  by  a  flutter  of  bright 
wings  and  a  decided  preference  for  flower  nectar  in  the 
new  animal  coming  out  from  the  cocoon,  all  its  days  of  leaf- 
eating  forgotten,  neither  knowing  nor  caring  for  anything 
save  sunshine,  pollen,  and  nectar. 

Insects,  then,  come  from  eggs,  and  the  changes  of 
form  undergone  on  the  way  from  the  egg  to  the  adult 

32 


DEVELOPMENT  AND   METAMORPHOSIS.  33 

or   mature   insect    are   to   be   expressed  in   one  term- 
metamorphosis. 

Development  with  no  Metamorphosis. 

If  an  insect  undergoes  no  bodily  changes  after  hatch- 
ing from  the  egg,  there  is  no  metamorphosis.  This  is 
true  for  only  a  very  few  insects,  as  the  thrips  and  the  fish 
moths.  These  insects,  when  they  hatch  from  the  eggs, 
look  exactly  like  their  parents  except  that  they  are  smaller. 
And  they  come  to  maturity  by  a  series  of  moults  after 
each  one  of  which  the  body  is  larger;  no  new  organs  ap- 
pear, there  is  simply  an  increase  in  bulk  until  the  size  of 
the  parent  is  reached,  then  the  moults  stop. 

Complete  Metamorphosis. 

But  for  other  insects  than  those  mentioned,  changes 
take  place  during  the  period  of  immaturity,  changes 
involving  body  form  or  life  habits  and  conditions,  or  both. 
The  changes  may  affect  only  slightly  the  body  form,  the 
life  habits  and  conditions  remaining  practically  unchanged ; 
we  speak  of  this  mode  of  reaching  maturity  as  incomplete 
metamorphosis.  Where  these  changes  include  not  only 
changes  in  body  form,  but  also  in  the  life  conditions  and 
habits,  this  series  of  changes  we  call  complete  metamor- 
phosis; it  comprises  the  four  stages  of  egg,  larva,  pupa, 
and  adult. 

Besides  these  three  modes  of  attaining  maturity, 
a  few  insects,  one  family  of  beetles,  the  blister  beetles, 
scale  insects,  and  a  few  parasitic  hymenopters,  multiply 
the  larval  stage  several  times;  the  blister  beetles  at  their 
different  moults  appearing  with  markedly  different  larval 
bodies,  but  the  last  one  finally  merging  into  the  familiar 
resting  pupa  of  its  kind.  (Fig.  16.)  This  last  mode  is 


34 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


called  hypermetamorphosis.  All  insects  may  be  divided 
along  the  line  of  complete  or  incomplete  metamorphosis ; 
those  with  the  additional  larval  stages  being  placed  with 
the  complete  and  those  without  change  of  body  form 
during  immaturity  being  placed  with  the  incomplete. 


F 

FIG.  16. — Stages  in  the  hypermetamorphosis  of  Epicauta.  A,  triungulin; 
B,  carabidoid  stage  of  second  larva;  C,  ultimate  stage  of  second  larva;  D,  coarctate 
larva;  E,  pupa;  F,  imago.  E  is  species  cinerea;  the  others  are  vittata.  All 
enlarged  except  F.  (Folsom,  after  Riley,  from  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.  Science.} 

The  insects  with  complete  metamorphosis  are,  per- 
haps, the  most  familiar  insects.  Take,  for  example,  the 
tomato  worm '.  (Fig.  17.)  The  eggs  are  at  first  green  like 
the  tomato  leaf  upon  which  they  were  laid;  in  the  course 
of  three  or  four  days  they  turn  yellow,  and  in  about  six 
days  they  begin  hatching.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly  and 
are  to  be  looked  for  on  the  under  side  of  tomato  leaves. 
The  larvae  also  feed  on  other  plants,  as  the  Texas  thistle, 
but  the  author  has  never  found  eggs  on  the  thistle.  From 


DEVELOPMENT  AND    METAMORPHOSIS. 


35 


these  eggs  hatch  tiny  green  caterpillars  less  than  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  long ;  these  begin  eating  the  tender  tomato  leaves, 
moult  four  times,  and  grow  to  a  size  of  about  four  inches. 
At  the  caudal  end  of  the  abdomen  there  is  a  blackish- 
green  or  bluish-black  horn  pointing  backward;  and  along 
each  side  is  a  row  of  yellowish  stripes  placed  obliquely. 
During  the  three  weeks  of  the  larval  life  these  cater- 


FIG.  17. — Larva  of  tomato  worm.     (Kellogg,  after  Soule;  somewhat  reduced.} 

pillars  eat  enormous  quantities  of  leaves,  and  they  seem 
especially  to  enjoy  finding  a  tomato — green  or  ripe,  it 
does  not  matter;  of  course  this  means  more  to  eat  and 
less  work  to  get  it.  At  the  end  of  this  time  they  stop 
eating  and  burrow  into  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the 
plants  which  they  have  been  eating,  and  lie  inactive.  If 
the  poor  caterpillar  is  in  a  pan  in  the  schoolroom  and 
cannot  make  you  understand  what  it  needs,  it  will  crawl 


36  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

hurriedly  around  the  pan,  attracting  as  much  attention 
and  looking  as  ferocious  as  possible,  and  will  then  "turn 
up  its  toes  "  in  disgust  at  your  lack  of  understanding.  Its 
period  of  inactivity  in  either  place  will  be  about  two  weeks, 
during  which  the  body  shortens  and  becomes  larger  around, 
and  begins  to  look  dried.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  if  you 
are  on  hand  when  the  wonder  happens,  you  will  see  the 
old  skin  crack  along  the  back  for  the  last  time,  while  the 
new  body  works  itself  loose  from  the  old  caterpillar  skin. 
This  new  animal  is  to  be  called  a  pupa.  (Fig.  18.)  It  has 


FIG.  1 8. — Pupa  of  tomato  worm. 

a  large  head  end  and  a  gradually  tapering  abdominal  por- 
tion. The  wing  areas  gradually  become  visible,  with  the 
suggestion  that  the  new  wings  are  folded  around  the  body 
toward  the  under  side.  From  the  head  end  there  extends 
along  the  front  of  the  pupal  body  an  odd  appendage  look- 
ing much  like  a  jug-handle;  this  is  the  case  for  the  long 
sucking  proboscis.  One  such  transformation  as  this 
observed  by  the  author,  began  at  noon  and  was  over  by 
two  o'clock.  The  characteristic  mahogany  brown  of  the 
pupa  case  did  not  appear  till  later. 

The  next  spring,  when  the  ground  warms  up  and 
you  go  at  the  right  time  to  the  place  where  your  pupa 
went  under,  you  will  see  this  pupa  case,  grown  old,  crack 
at  the  big  head  end  and  down  a  little  on  the  back,  and 


DEVELOPMENT  AND    METAMORPHOSIS.  37 

out  will  come  the  head  of  a  gray  moth.  Gradually  it 
works  its  wings  out,  then  its  front  legs;  then,  by  pushing 
back  on  the  old  case  with  its  front  legs,  it  works  out  the 
other  pairs  of  legs  and  afterward  its  abdomen.  It  rests 
frequently  while  it  is  doing  all  this,  and  now  it  rests  a 
longer  time  than  it  has  before.  Then  it  braces  itself  and 
begins  pulling  its  proboscis  out  of  the  jug-handle  sheath. 
This  emergence  may  last  an  hour  and  a  half  or  two  hours. 


FIG.  19. — Adult  of  tomato  worm,  showing  sucking  proboscis  uncoiled. 

The  body  wall  must  harden  to  form  a  secure  attachment 
for  the  muscles  which  are  concerned  in  the  violent  exertion 
necessary  to  free  the  insect  from  its  hard,  dry  pupal  case. 
(Fig.  19.)  This  moth  represents  the  completion  of  the  life 
cycle;  it  is  the  parent  repeated,  the  adult  again.  It 
hangs  to  the  old  pupal  case — the  only  familiar  thing  in 
a  world  of  strangeness — occasionally  waving  its  wet, 
wrinkled  wings.  Gradually  the  body  wall  hardens,  the 
wings  straighten  out  and  dry,  the  different  colors  of  the 
scales  and  hairs  on  its  wings  and  body  appear,  and  proba- 
bly, by  the  following  morning,  the  splendid  gray-winged 
moth  will  be  flitting  from  flower  to  flower  on  the  trumpet 
creeper  or  in  the  petunia  bed,  not  needing  to  be  taught 
where  to  look  for  its  breakfast,  having  knowledge  of  how 


38  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

to  take  care  of  itself,  provide  for  itself,  and  look  after  the 
wise  placing  of  its  eggs  in  the  future,  if  it  is  a  female  moth. 
The  internal  changes  are  also  great.  The  musculation  of 
the  caterpillar  is  that  of  a  worm,  for  crawling,  wriggling, 
worm-like  locomotion,  and  instead  of  long  muscles  we 
find  many  short  muscles  running  lengthwise  of  the  body, 
while  other  muscles  run  around  the  body  at  nearly  right 
angles  with  these.  In  the  adult  the  muscular  needs  are 
very  different,  where,  especially  in  the  thorax  and  the  head, 
many  strong  cross  muscles  must  provide  for  flying,  run- 
ning, and  eating.  The  alimentary  canal  of  the  larva  is 
adapted  for  disposing  of  solid  food,  while  in  the  adult 
stage  the  alimentary  canal  is  adapted  for  sucking  liquid 
food  from  flowers. 

Not  only  are  there  changes  such  as  have  just  been 
described  for  the  butterflies  and  the  moths,  but  the 
respiratory  systems  of  some  insects  must  also  change. 
The  dragon-fly  nymphs  are  adapted  for  living  in  the  water, 
while  the  adult  dragon  flies  are  air-breathing  insects. 
The  heart  and  the  nervous  system  of  an  insect  with 
complete  metamorphosis,  show  lesser  differences,  but 
even  here  there  must  be  changes  on  the  way  to  adulthood. 
The  ventral  nerve  chain  of  the  larvae  of  some  insects  con- 
tains twice  as  many  ganglia  as  does  that  of  the  adult; 
the  cephalic  ganglion  enlarges  on  the  way  toward  the 
mature  insect,  and  the  front  part  of  the  larval  heart 
gradually  narrows  at  the  head  end  into  what  may  be 
called,  in  some  insects,  the  aorta. 

In  the  pupal  stage  the  insect  is  defenseless;  it  can 
neither  fight  nor  run  away;  hence  its  safety  lies  in  con- 
cealment in  some  burrow,  or  in  the  sagacity  with  which 
its  larva  spun  a  cocoon  and  hung  itself  up  where  it  would 
not  show,  or  where  it  would  so  harmonize  with  its  sur- 


DEVELOPMENT  AND   METAMORPHOSIS.  39 

roundings  that  it  might  be  visible  but  not  distinguishable. 
The  insect  in  its  pupal  stage  does  not  eat,  but  the  larva 
has  provided  for  this  by  eating  greedily  all  through  its 
larval  existence ;  so  there  is  a  large  supply  of  surplus  food 
within  the  larval  body  when  the  pupa  begins  the  wonder- 
ful changes  toward  adult  form.  Upon  this  reserve  the 
pupa  draws  until  the  time  of  its  emergence  as  an  adult. 
Although  the  pupal  insect  does  not  eat,  nor,  except  in 
a  very  few  cases,  move  about  from  place  to  place,  we  are 
not  to  regard  it  as  quietly  doing  nothing  while  it  is  in  its 
burrow  or  cocoon.  Really  this  is  the  period  of  the  most 
wonderful  changes  in  all  the  insect's  life.  Gradually 
there  comes  about,  in  the  case  of  the  tomato  worm,  for 
instance,  the  replacement  of  the  solid  food  digesting 
apparatus,  with  the  alimentary  organs  •  necessary  for 
digesting  liquid  food;  the  caterpillar  set  of  muscles  must 
be  replaced  by  the  wing  and  the  leg  locomotor  muscles; 
the  wings  themselves  must  be  developed;  the  wonderful 
compound  eyes  must  be  built,  facet  by  facet,  with  the 
marvelous  structure  behind  each.  Embryologists  tell 
us  that  this  building  up  of  new  organs  is  preceded  by  a 
breaking  up  of  most  of  the  internal  organs  into  a  general 
body  fluid,  out  of  which  rich  food  supply,  the  new  organs, 
internal  and  external,  must  be  built,  with  perhaps 
certain  bud  cells  as  centers  for  the  new  growths. 

All  young  animals,  even  the  one-celled,  have  a 
longer  or  shorter  period  of  immaturity.  In  the  cases 
where  the  young  of  insects  are  born  alive  we  must  conceive 
these  changes  as  having  taken  place  before  the  young 
were  freed  from  the  egg  duct  of  the  mother  insect,  as  is 
the  case  with  such  of  our  flies  as  do  not  "lay  eggs."  In 
complete  metamorphosis  the  insect  is  born  youngest, 
is  most  immature,  and  appears  in  the  form  farthest 


4O  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

removed  from  the  parent  form.  In  the  case  of  the 
ametamorphic  insects,  we  may  speak  of  the  young  as 
undergoing  some  such  maturing  as  do  the  young  of  some- 
what higher  animals,  development  without  metamorpho- 
sis ;  while  the  incomplete  metamorphosis  sorts  represent  a 
type  between  ametamorphic  and  complete  metamorphic. 

Incomplete  Metamorphosis. 

As  an  example  of  incomplete  metamorphosis,  we 
may  take  the  box  elder  bug  that  is  becoming  such  a  pest 
wherever  box  elder  trees  are  grown.  Probably  these 
trees  have  much  to  do  with  the  appearance  of  the  bug. 
All  animals,  even  in  the  human  tribe,  follow  their  food 
around  the  world;  or  else,  if 'they  have  the  power  of 
initiative,  as  human  beings  do,  they  take  their  foods  along 
to  the  new  place  of  abode.  From  the  egg  there  hatches 
a  tiny  red  bug,  soft-bodied,  and  without  wings,  yet 
enough  like  its  parents  to  have  the  same  mouth  parts  and 
the  same  feeding  habits.  These  small  bugs  feed,  so  far 
as  we  know,  on  the  sap  of  the  young,  tender  stems  and 
twigs.  They  seem  not  to  be  confined  to  box  elder  trees, 
though  probably  feeding  there  more  often  than  elsewhere. 
To  accommodate  the  increasing  bulk,  the  bug  sheds  its 
old  skin  frequently.  The  body  wall  becomes  hardened 
by  chitin,  and  will  not  yield  as  the  insect  continually 
grows;  hence  it  is  split  open  and  the  insect  casts  it  off; 
but  before  this  happens  the  insect  has  made  itself  a  new 
skin  inside  the  old  one,  and  when  it  emerges,  the  new 
wet,  wrinkled  skin  stretches  and  so  makes  room  for  the 
insect  grown  larger.  The  wings  are  represented,  at  first, 
by  bud  cells  under  the  skin,  but  gradually  these  grow 
until  the  rudiments  of  wings  appear  beyond  the  body 
wall  in  the  shape  of  wing  pads.  The  body  continues  to 


DEVELOPMENT  AND   METAMORPHOSIS.  4! 

increase  in  size,  the  wing  pads  develop  into  wings,  the 
adult  colorings  of  black  and  red  appear  until,  when  adult 
size  is  reached,  we  see  a  familiar  box  elder  bug  with  its 
red  "X"  on  its  black  back,  its  gauzy  under  wings  for 
flying,  and  its  slender  legs  to  carry  it  efficiently  about 
into  more  places  than  we  wish  it  could  get  into. 


^\W^  H    E  V*r     8    F 

FIG.  20 — Six  successive  instars  of  the  squash  bug,  Anasa  tristis.      X  2.  (Folsom.) 

In  this  form  of  metamorphosis  there  seem  to  be  but 
two  intermediate  stages,  the  egg  and  the  larval  stage,  the 
latter  greatly  extended.  (Fig.  20.)  Where  the  insect  has 
complete  metamorphosis,  the  food  habits  of  the  adult 
generally  differ  from  those  of  the  larva ;  but  where  the  in- 
sect comes  to  adult  form  by  incomplete  metamorphosis, 
the  young  usually  has  the  same  food  preferences  as  it  will 
have  later  in  life  and  as  its  parents  had  before  it. 


CHAPTER  V. 
INSECTS  AND  THEIR  CLASSIFICATION. 

Entomology,  or  the  study  of  insects,  had  its  origin 
far  back  in  the  days  when  scientists  were  generalizers 
and  had  not  yet  become  specialists,  each  in  his  particular 
realm.  Linnaeus,  Carl  von  Linne,  so  often  called  the 
father  of  modern  botany,  was  one  of  these  general  scien- 
tists. The  field  covered  by  this  one  man  included 
minerals,  animals,  and  plants,  any  one  of  which  is  more 
than  enough  for  one  man  nowadays.  Nevertheless,  the 
thoroughness  of  his  work  in  insects  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  his  seven  orders  of  insects  remained  a  satis- 
factory system  of  classification  for  more  than  half  a 
century.  Classification  is,  of  course,  not  the  most  impor- 
tant thing  about  an  animal  or  a  plant,  nor  is  it  in  any 
sense  a  finality  in  the  study  of  the  living  being.  When 
one  has  the  name  for  a  living  being,  he  has  a  handle  for 
using  the  tool  of  this  new  information  in  working  out  more 
valuable  conclusions.  The  economic  relations  of  that 
living  being  with  other  animals,  with  plants,  or  with 
man,  are  more  important.  Comparison  of  the  structure 
of  the  lower  animals  with  the  higher  is  valuable.  To 
estimate  how  closely  a  bee  approximates  a  man's  sense  of 
sight,  or  transcends  man's  ability  to  smell  keenly,  to 
recognize  his  kind,  and  to  find  his  home  without  road, 
compass,  chart,  or  beaten  track,  all  these  are  much  more 
valuable  than  to  know  that  this  particular  bee  rejoices  in 
the  name  of  Apis  mellifica.  Yet,  where  there  are  thou- 

42 


INSECTS  AND    THEIR   CLASSIFICATION.  43 

sands  of  insects  and  not  all  of  a  kind,  one  must  have  some 
way  of  knowing  what  each  insect  is  before  he  can  begin 
to  work  out  -all  the  marvelous  relationships  between  that 
insect  and  others  much  like  it  or  differing  much  from  it. 
Besides  these  facts,  which  still  are  of  secondary  value, 
the  student  of  insects  will  come  to  know  that  of  all  the 
different  sorts  of  insects  some  are  low,  while  some  are 
high  in  the  life  scale;  some  are  simple  in  structure,  while 
others  are  very  complex;  some  have  more  intelligence 
than  others ;  some  have  higher  nervous  organization  than 
others,  with  sense  powers  that  eclipse  man's  powers,  with 
instincts  whose  like  we  do  not  know,  or  if  we  did  once 
know  them  in  the  days  when  man  was  first  learning  his 
new  world,  they  are  now  covered  over  completely,  buried 
beneath  the  later  stratum  of  reasoning  as  the  basis  of 
activity,  the  determinant  of  action.  In  short,  life  is  a 
continuous  stream  with  powers  fundamentally  the  same, 
whether  that  life  is  manifested  in  this  body  or  that;  and 
each  race  or  tribe  of  beings  exhibits  unmistakable  relation- 
ships to  the  beings  above  and  below  it,  those  relationships 
being  stated  in  terms  of  structure,  or  metamorphosis,  or 
nervous  organization. 

Insects,  as  classified  by  Linnaeus,  were  all  included  in 
seven  orders :  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  Coleoptera,  Aptera, 
Lepidoptera,  Neuroptera,  and  Hemiptera.  Under  his 
Hemiptera  were  included  the  insects  now  forming  the 
Orthoptera.  The  Neuroptera  included  a  mixture  of  very 
dissimilar  insects  now  set  apart  in  three  different  orders. 
Rearrangement  of  the  remaining  insects  on  the  bases  of 
structure  and  metamorphosis,  and  the  necessity  of 
providing  a  place  in  the  general  scheme  for  the  many 
insects  that  Linnaeus  never  saw,  and  which  later  natural- 
ists have  been  continually  finding,  has  led  to  the  formation 


44 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


of  other  orders  which  express  the  new  lines  of  division  and 
discovery. 

The  simplest  insects  are  wingless,  have  little  differen- 
tiation of  body  form,  and  no  free  metamorphosis.  These 
are  the  Thysanura.  The  fish,  moth  is  an  example  of  the 
order  and  probably  the  member  most  frequently  seen— 
a  wingless,  swift-moving  little  creature  with  six  legs.  It 
is  often  found  among  musty  piles  of  paper  or  among  folds 
of  clothing  laid  away.  The  Isoptera,  or  termites,  have  a 
growth  instead  of  metamorphosis,  and  only  the  kings  and 
queens  of  the  colonies  are  winged.  These  insects  are 
sometimes  called  white  ants.  The  Corrodentia,  or  book 
louse  order,  is  represented  by  the  pale-colored,  flattish 
little  creatures  that  hustle  out  of  sight  when  you  open 
an  old  book  long  unused  and  a  little  musty.  Some  of 
the  Corrodentia  are  winged  and  all  have  incomplete 
metamorphosis.  The  Mallophaga  include  the  sheep  and 
the  goat  lice,  and  the  bird  lice.  They  have  biting  mouth 
parts  and  eat  wool,  hair,  or  feathers,  while  the  true  lice 
feed  upon  blood  which  they  suck  from  the  victim's  body. 
The  Euplexoptera,  or  earwigs,  resemble  some  of  the  rove 
beetles,  but  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  they 
have  a  pair  of  forceps-like  appendages  at  the  caudal 
end  of  the  body.  They  have  four  wings  and  reproduce 
by  incomplete  metamorphosis.  They  do  not  creep  into 
people's  ears,  as  the  old  notion  had  it,  but  usually  are 
predaceous,  feeding,  according  to  Howard,  upon  dead 
insects,  snails,  and  small  living  insects.  The  Physopoda, 
or  thrips,  are  mostly  flower  pests,  though  some  of  them 
eat  other  insects.  Sometimes,  close  down  to  a  head  of 
red  clover,  you  may  see  some  small  black  insects  which 
try  to  frighten  you  off  by  thrusting  the  end  of  the  abdomen 
energetically  up  into  the  air.  And  if  you  are  looking 


INSECTS   AND    THEIR   CLASSIFICATION.  45 

through  a  microscope  this  may  appear  a  trifle  ferocious. 
They  are  winged,  probably  suck  their  food,  and  have 
incomplete  metamorphosis.  The  Mecoptera  is  the  order 
of  the  scorpion  flies,  so  called  because  some  of  the  order 
have  the  anal  end  of  the  abdomen  shaped  like  the  sting 
of  a  scorpion.  The  mouth  parts  are  beak-like,  but  with 
mandibles  at  the  end  of  the  beak.  The  insects  have  four 
wings  and  reproduce  by  complete  metamorphosis. 

The  Trichoptera  have  hairy  wings,  four  of  them,  and 
they  use  them  only  in  the  adult  stage.  They  are  called 
caddice  or  caddis  flies.  The  larvae,  or  caddis  worms,  are 
highly  prized  as  bait  by  old  fishermen  in  England. 
These  queer  larvae  make  a  case  of  sticks,  sand,  or  straw 
about  themselves,  then  stick  out  the  head  and  the  thorax, 
and  go  crawling  about  in  the  water  for  food.  The  adults 
look  considerably  like  small  moths. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FIELD  WORK 
ON  INSECTS. 

The  teacher  who  hopes  to  present  the  subject  of  insect 
study  must  be  a  leader  in  doing  things,  not  simply  a 
director,  expecting  to  give  directions  and  have  them 
obeyed.  The  beginner  learns  to  do  things  by  seeing 
some  one  who  knows  how,  go  ahead.  Not  only  this,  but 
the  instructor  needs  to  be  with  the  pupil  to  show  him 
where  to  go,  what  to  get,  and  when  to  stop.  And  in 
securing  insects,  it  is  quite  as  valuable  to  know  when  to 
stop  as  to  know  when  to  begin.  There  are  many  valuable 
insects  which  deserve  protection,  and  which  the  beginner 
can  learn  only  gradually  to  recognize  and  to  spare 
when  looking  for  new  insects.  The  real  object  of  the 
study  is  to  learn  the  life  habits,  the  individual  peculiarities, 
and  the  relationships  of  these  insects  to  each  other  and  to 
ourselves;  and  the  only  way  to  do  this  is  to  find  them  in 
their  places  of  abode  and  observe  what  they  are  doing 
and  how  they  get  along  in  the  world.  Or,  if  a  beneficial 
insect  is  desired  for  extended  study,  bring  along  with  it 
plenty  of  its  natural  food  to  keep  it  going  while  its  ap- 
pearance and  conduct  are  being  studied. 

In  beginning  the  work,  it  is  an  effective  thing  to 
organize,  say,  four  expeditions,  one  to  some  wood  pile, 
one  to  the  open  fields  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  one  to  a 
pond,  and  one  to  some  electric  light  globe,  or,  failing  in  this 
latter,  a  kitchen  window  may  be  raised  and  the  screen 

46 


FIELD    WORK   ON   INSECTS.  47 

opened  while  the  investigator  "waits  for  a  bite."  In  the 
excursion  which  leads  anywhere  near  trees,  be  on  the 
lookout  for  cocoons  hung  on  leaves  or  twigs.  Cut  these 
off  and  bring  them  home.  In  the  garden  there  may  be 
caterpillars,  and  what  they  are  eating  should  be  noticed, 
so  as  to  bring  in  for  study  the  caterpillar  and  its  food  also. 

The  work  fails  of  part  of  its  mission  if  it  does  not 
teach  lessons  of  humanity.  All  insects,  even  the  injurious 
ones,  should  be  killed  as  quickly  as  possible;  there  is 
never  any  excuse  for  taking  life  lightly  or  with  unneces- 
sary cruelty.  Life  is  a  thing  of  like  powers,  whether  it  is 
bound  up  in  the  body  of  a  grasshopper,  a  butterfly,  or  a 
human  being;  all  are  God's  creatures,  and  all  deserve 
consideration  at  the  hands  of  God's  highest  creatures, 
men  and  women,  girls  and  boys. 

The  work  may  be  made  clearer  and  more  likely  to  be 
remembered  if  it  is  made  to  emphasize  at  first  the  com- 
mon orders  of  insects,  so  that  the  element  of  familiarity 
may  be  used  to  build  the  unfamiliar  upon.  Each  insect 
selected  should  be  a  typical  insect  of  its  kind,  the  better 
to  illustrate  the  physical  differences.  The  bug  should 
be  as  big  a  bug  as  possible.  The  beetle  should  be  a  big 
fellow  and  have  hard,  horny  wing  covers.  The  fly  ought 
to  be  a  horse  fly,  if  possible,  as  the  house  fly  is  small. 
No  exceptional  forms,  nor  forms  of  doubtful  structure 
which  cannot  be  located  with  certainty,  should  be  chosen 
for  study;  they  will  come  all  right  after  a  while,  never 
fear;  they  are  to  be  found  everywhere,  along  with  the 
insects  that  are  well  known!  One  of  the  preliminaries 
is  to  get  together  enough  knowledge  of  the  different 
orders  to  know  representative  forms  of  them  when  they 
are  seen.  Hence  the  physical  appearance  of  each  should 
be  studied  so  as  to  know  the  mandibles  of  beetles  and 


48  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

their  hard  wing  covers;  the  mandibles  of  grasshoppers 
and  their  soft,  straight  wing  covers;  the  beak  of  bugs; 
the  coiled  proboscis  of  butterflies  and  moths;  the  four 
membranous  wings  and  hairy,  or  smooth  and  pedunculate 
bodies  of  the  bees,  ants,  and  wasps;  the  two  wings  of  the 
flies ;  and  so  on,  if  other  orders  are  commonly  represented 
in  the  neighborhood  where  the  work  is  done. 

In  the  late  summer  one  ought  to  be  able  to  find 
butterfly  and  moth  larvae,  or  larvae  that  have  already 
spun  their  cocoons  and  have  turned  into  pupae.  If  the 
former,  bring  them  into  the  school-room  along  with  food 
enough  to  last  them;  and  if  the  latter,  bring  in  the 
twig  or  stem  on  which  the  pupae  are  hung,  or  the  dirt  in 
which  they  were  found,  and  put  them  into  a  safe  place, 
where,  later  the  students  may  have  the  privilege  of  seeing 
what  metamorphosis  means.  There  is  nothing  that  quite 
takes  the  place  of  seeing  the  thing  for  yourself  in  the  big 
world  of  Nature's  wonders.  Many  other  things  will 
suggest  themselves  to  the  earnest  instructor  who  is  on 
the  lookout  to  open  up  the  world  of  knowledge  to  the 
young  mind.  The  child  will  often  be  the  leader  as  to 
where  you  are  to  go  and  what  you  are  to  teach  him.  My 
best  teachers  have  been  my  students  who  have  asked  me 
things  that  I  did  not  know.  Never  forget  that  you  are  a 
child  yourself,  and  that  it  is  still  your  privilege  to  learn 
truth  along  with  them  from  the  great  Master  of  Truth 
Himself.  The  bookworm  side  of  study  is  not  to  be 
emphasized;  leave  that  for  him  who  cannot  do  the  thing 
in  any  other  way.  There  is  such  a  world  of  things  that 
are  very  much  alive,  that  one  cannot  afford  to  waste  the 
time  over  book  knowledge  of  living  creatures.  Just  give 
the  creatures  about  us  a  chance  and  they  will  teach  us 
many  a  lesson  in  humanity  and  gentleness,  ingenuity  and 


FIELD   WORK   ON   INSECTS.  49 

device,  successfulness  and  joy  of  living,  such  as  will  often 
put  us  to  shame. 

As  to  the  apparatus  necessary  in  the  work,  there 
ought  not  to  be  so  much  of  it  that  all  the  student's  power 
of  initiative  is  taken  away  from  him.  The  chance  to 
acquire  the  power  to  deal  successfully  with  one's  sur- 
roundings is  the  birth-right  of  every  human  being;  if  we 
teachers  prepare  the  way  too  much,  we  rob  the  child  of 
this  birth-right. 

Most  insects  run  away  if  they  are  pursued,  and 
some  of  them  have  a  very  long  jump;  so  it  is  necessary 


FIG.  21. — Diagram  of  insect  net. 

to  have  some  means  of  lengthening  one's  own  jump  to 
keep  up  with  them.  A  good  insect  net  is  made  by 
bending  a  piece  of  stout  wire  in  the  form  of  a  circle, 
with  about  five  inches  of  both  ends  of  the  loop  bent 
parallel  downward,  so  that  the  loop  may  be  fastened  to  a 
handle,  preferably  a  round  handle.  This  stick  should  be 
about  five  feet  long,  and  should  have  a  hole  bored  in  each 
side  about  five  inches  down  from  one  end ;  and  the  parallel 
ends  of  the  wire  loop  should  be  bent  into  these  holes,  and 
then  fastened  firmly  to  the  stick  by  a  binding  of  flexible 
wire.  This  forms  a  frame-work  for  the  net.  (Fig.  21.) 

A  piece  of  mosquito  bar  or  coarse  net  is  used  for  the 
net.  The  piece  should  be  long  enough  to  sew  around  the 
wire  loop;  and  the  bag  should  be  about  twice  as  deep  as 


{jo  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

the  diameter  of  the  loop.  The  bag  may  be  left  square 
at  the  bottom,  or  may  be  cut  pointed  or  rounded.  Armed 
with  this,  one  is  usually  able  to  lengthen  his  jump  so  as  to 
keep  up  with  even  the  grasshoppers. 

For  aquatic  insects,  another  sort  of  net  may  be  more 
useful.  The  wire  loop  and  the  long  handle  will  be  neces- 
sary, unless  there  can  be  mustered  a  pair  of  rubber  boots ; 
but  the  loop  should  be  considerably  smaller,  not  over 
eight  or  ten  inches  across;  this  net  is  to  be  used  in  water, 


FIG.  22. — Diagram  of  dip  net. 

not  in  air,  so  it  must  be  stouter.  A  piece  of  coarse,  stiff 
net  should  be  cut  into  circular  form  about  six  or  eight 
inches  larger  in  diameter  than  the  wire  loop.  Turn  in  the 
edge  and  sew  it  firmly  to  the  loop,  preferably  with  cord. 
This  makes  a  round-bottomed  net,  which  remains  spread 
out  whether  wet  or  dry.  (Fig.  22.) 

Another  valuable  help  for  all  field  work  is  a  common 
reading  glass.  One  costing  about  $1.75  or  $2.00  is 
powerful  enough.  It  enables  half  a  dozen  people  to  see 
a  given  thing  at  one  time,  and  also  serves  to  watch  insects 
which  are  eating,  showing  how  they  do  it.  It  is  held  at 
ordinary  reading  distance.  It  may  be  held  over  a  bee 
while  she  is  on  a  dandelion  or  a  milkweed  cluster;  even  a 
wasp  will  not  resent  your  looking  at  her  with  this 
magnifier,  touchy  as  wasps  are;  and  butterflies  reveal  many 


FIELD    WORK    ON   INSECTS.  51 

secrets  through  its  round  disk.  A  hand  lens  magnifying 
about  fifty  diameters  is  highly  useful  for  the  smaller 
insects. 

Another  requisite,  which  is  used  for  disposing  of 
noxious  insects,  and  such  others  as  may  really  be  needed 
for  examination,  is  a  killing  bottle,  or  other  means  of 
killing  your  'insects.  Beneficial  insects  should  not  be 
killed ;  but  all  noxious  insects  should  be  killed.  To  avoid 
making  any  mistakes,  all  insects  should  be  taken  alive 
and  studied  in  that  condition;  then  the  advice  of  the 
instructor  is  to  be  followed  as  to  whether  to  kill  your 
' '  find  "  or  not.  Every  living  creature  has  its  mission,  and 
the  day  has  gone  by  when  we  can  afford  to  destroy  bene- 
ficial animals  of  any  kind;  and  you  will  attain  one  of  the 
most  valuable  results  in  field  zoology  if  you  learn  which 
are  our  familiar,  beneficial  insects  and  which  are  the 
harmful  ones. 

Having  the  knowledge  that  some  of  your  insects 
will  deserve  killing,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  small 
bottle  of  gasoline  for  use  in  killing  the  grasshoppers,  the 
katydids,  and  the  locusts.  These  are  big  coarse  insects, 
are  not  beneficial,  and  their  bodies  are  not  delicate  enough 
to  be  harmed  by  the  action  of  the  gasoline.  The  fumes  of 
the  killing  bottle  do  not  readily  affect  them;  they  suffer 
long,  and  sometimes  come  to  life  on  the  pin  after  you  are 
reasonably  sure  that  they  are  dead ;  and  there  is  never  any 
excuse  for  causing  needless  suffering.  The  animal  with 
a  highly  organized  nervous  system  dies  quickly ;  we  often 
hear  of  "instantaneous  death"  with  respect  to  such 
animals.  But  animals  of  less  complexity  are  not  so 
quickly  affected,  hence  die  more  slowly.  The  grasshop- 
pers all  die  more  slowly  than  do  the  flies,  the  bees,  or  the 
butterflies. 


c-2  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

For  the  more  nervously  organized  insects,  one  must 
have  another  mode  of  killing  them.  A  wide-mouthed 
glass  bottle  with  a  tightly  fitting  stopper— a  small  candy 
jar  with  its  ground  glass  stopper  is  excellent — should  be 
fitted  with  a  wad  of  absorbent  cotton  in  the  lid.  The 
jar  should  be  wide  enough  to  admit  large  moths  and 
butterflies  and  flies  without  doubling  up  their  wings. 
Just  before  putting  in  the  insects  that  must  be  killed,  for 
instance,  saw  flies,  horn  tails,  mosquitoes,  stable  flies, 
drop  a  few  drops  of  ether  or  chloroform  on  the  absorbent 
cotton  in  the  lid.  Close  the  jar  quickly  and  tightly. 
This  jar  may  be  used  for  killing  flies,  but  the  advice  of  your 
instructor  must  be  followed  as  to  which  flies  are  to  be 
killed.  It  would  never  do  to  kill  the  valuable  Tachinas, 
or  the  syrphid  flies;  while  mosquitoes,  house  flies,  stable 
flies,  and  hessian  flies  are  to  be  killed  without  mercy. 

The  killing  bottle  will  do  for  the  stronger  dragon 
flies  also,  but  not  more  than  one  specimen  for  the  whole 
class  should  be  killed,  and  when  you  put  it  into  the  jar, 
you  must  put  considerably  more  ether  on  the  absorbent 
cotton.  If  you  reach  the  study  of  dragon  flies  late  in  the 
summer  or  early  in  the  fall,  you  may  find  quite  a  number  of 
dragon  flies  that  have  died  a  natural  death.  These  will 
do  quite  well  for  examination.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  put  many  insects  into  the  killing  bottle  at  one  time ;  if 
the  insects  are  moths  or  butterflies,  and  large,  only  one  or 
two  at  a  time.  In  bringing  home  your  finds,  the  natural 
food  inclinations  of  your  insects  must  be  regarded.  The 
shepherd  would  not  be  so  foolish  as  to  shut  up  the  wolves 
with  his  sheep.  For  instance,  if  you  catch  some  spiders, 
better  give  them  a  box  by  themselves,  few  in  the  box,  and 
not  long  at  a  time;  or  you  will  be  likely  to  have  nothing 
left  except  some  unusually  well-fed,  big  spiders.  So 


FIELD    WORK   ON   INSECTS.  53 

along  with  you  to  the  collecting  field  should  go  several 
small  boxes  rather  than  one  big  box.  Remember,  your 
first  object  is  to  bring  home  your  insects  alive  to  find  out 
about  them,  and  whether  to  kill  them  or  not.  A  cyanid 
bottle  may  also  be  used  for  one  of  the  killing  bottles ;  but 
extreme  care  must  be  observed  in  the  use  of  it,  as  the  cya- 
nid is  a  deadly  poison,  and  the  bottle  must  be  kept  always 
corked;  it  would  much  better  always  be  left  at  school, 
and  the  safer  chloroform  or  ether  bottle  taken  to  the  field. 
When  one  has  become  something  of  an  expert  in  hunting 
and  trapping  insects  the  cyanid  bottle  becomes  a  safer 
companion  on  the  various  expeditions. 

If  the  instructor  decides  that  it  may  be  used,  it  may 
be  made  in  this  way.  A  wide-mouthed  bottle  should  be 
chosen,  and  into  it  may  be  dropped  some  small  lumps  of 
potassium  cyanid.  As  long  as  this  substance  is  kept  dry 
it  does  little  harm  and  may  be  safely  handled  with  the 
hands  dry.  Then  on  this  is  to  be  dropped  a  small  quantity 
of  powdered  plaster  of  Paris,  also  dry,  enough  to  fill  the 
spaces  lightly  between  the  cyanid  lumps.  Then  mix  up  a 
small  quantity  of  plaster  of  Paris  in  water,  enough  to  cover 
the  dust  and  lump  mixture  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
deep,  using  enough  water  to  have  it  spread  easily.  Run 
this  in  on  to  the  mixture,  doing  it  as  quickly  as  possible 
and  taking  care  to  leave  a  small  opening  somewhere 
through  which  you  may  at  the  very  last  pour  in  a  wee  bit 
of  weak  sulphuric  acid  on  to  the  cyanid  lumps  which  may 
be  there,  afterward  quickly  covering  this  opening  with 
the  wet  plaster  also.  Take  care  to  do  all  this  in  an  open 
room  with  the  windows  open;  then  there  will  be  no  danger. 
This  makes  the  most  effective  killing  bottle  for  the  gen- 
erality of  insects;  and  if  used  rightly,  with  due  caution, 
and  always  kept  tightly  corked  it  will  be  found  satisfactory. 


54 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


After  the  wet  plaster  of  Paris  has  been  run  in  so  as  to  cover 
the  mixture  completely,  leave  the  bottle  in  the  open  air 
for  two  hours  or  less  according  to  the  dryness  and  heat 
of  the  outer  air;  it  will  then  be  sufficiently  dry,  and  after 
that  must  be  kept  carefully  corked  except  when  putting 
in  your  finds  that  are  to  be  killed. 

The  usual  reservations  must  be  made  in  the  use  of 
this  bottle ;  no  beneficial  insects  are  to  find  their  way  into 
it  unless  it  is  past  their  season  of  usefulness;  small  and 
large  insects  must  not  be  put  into  it  together,  as  their 
struggles  are  apt  to  injure  the  smaller,  weaker  ones;  and 
insects  put  into  this  killing  bottle  must  not  be  left  too 
long  without  attention.  This  same  precaution  should  be 
observed  with  respect  to  the  chloroform  killing  bottle; 
there  is  a  tendency  with  some  insects,  for  the  muscles  to 
stiffen  if  they  are  left  two  hours  or  such  a  matter  in  the 
fumes  of  chloroform.  There  seems  not  to  be  this  fault 
with  the  ether.  When  the  cyanid  bottle  is  opened  it 
should  be  in  an  open  room ;  and  the  killing  bottle  should 
not  be  left  habitually  in  one's  sleeping-room.  This  last 
precaution  is  given  because  it  is  often  advisable  for  each 
student  to  have  a  killing  bottle  of  whichever  kind  the 
instructor  may  deem  the  best. 

The  wings  of  butterflies  and  grasshoppers  are  part 
of  the  requisites  for  finding  out  what  kinds  of  butterflies 
and  grasshoppers  you  have;  hence  it  is  necessary  to  set 
them  up  in  such  a  way  that  their  wings  show  well.  A 
drying  board  is  useful  in  this  case.  Take  two  small 
pieces  of  inch  lumber,  eight  inches  long  by  four  inches 
wide.  Saw  a  V-shaped  piece  out  of  the  long  side  of  each 
of  these  two  pieces,  with  a  slope  of  the  sides  at  an  angle 
of  25°  to  the  edge  of  the  piece  of  lumber.  Do  not  make 
the  V  too  sloping;  this  angle  determines  the  angle  of  the 


FIELD    WORK    ON   INSECTS.  55 

spread  wings;  some  collectors  prefer  to  spread  them 
horizontally.  Nail  a  narrow,  thin  strip  on  these  two 
sloping  sides  so  as  to  leave  an  open  space  between.  After 
you  have  these  pieces  together,  turn  the  board  under 
side  upward,  and,  with  small  tacks,  fasten  a  strip  of 
corrugated  paper,  or  strips  of  corn  pith  all  along  this 
opening  between  the  thin  board  strips.  This  makes  a 
groove  in  which  the  insect's  body  is  to  rest  while  the  wings 


FIG.  23. — Drying  board. 

are  drying  and  the  wing  joints  hardening.  If  the  class  is 
large,  it  will  be  best  to  make  several  drying  boards,  some 
of  them  with  the  groove  wide  to  accommodate  large  in- 
sects, and  some  others  for  the  smaller  insects.  (Fig.  23.) 
A  collection  box  would  best  be  made  by  a  cabinet 
maker,  and  may  belong  to  the  class  or  the  school,  or  to  the 
individual  student.  It  should  be  made  with  joints  as 
tight  as  possible,  and  with  a  glass  cover.  Several  patterns 
will  suggest  themselves,  but  the  best  ones  are  the  boxes 
that  will  close  most  nearly  air-tight.  Smaller  insects 
will  be  almost  sure  to  lay  their  eggs  on  the  insects  that 
you  have  carefully  dried  and  identified,  and  when  their 
eggs  hatch  out,  the  greedy  grubs  will  eat  up  the  whole  lot, 
beginning  with  your  finest  specimen  usually.  Naphtha 


56  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

balls  ought  to  be  kept  in  your  collection  boxes.  They 
may  be  pinned  inside  a  bit  of  mosquito  bar,  or  a  hot 
pin  may  be  thrust  through  the  balls  and  then  they  can  be 
pinned  in  the  corner  of  the  box.  For  temporary  boxes,  cigar 
boxes  will  do  very  well,  and  they  will  keep  the  insects  for 
a  considerable  time  if  this  naphtha  precaution  is  taken. 

The  tickets  for  your  specimens  need  not  be  large  nor 
contain  much  of  data.  Several  manuals  may  be  used  by 
the  class  in  identification;  hence  the  labels  should  state 
the  authority  for  the  name.  Abbreviations  for  the  names 
of  the  authorities  may  be  agreed  upon,  and  these  abbre- 
viations used  on  the  labels  or  tickets.  The  page  cited 
is  also  valuable  in  case  of  doubtful  classification.  The 
locality,  the  year,  and  the  month  of  finding  are  sometimes 
used  on  such  labels,  and  are  useful  information  concerning 
the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the  insects  in  given  regions, 
and  as  to  the  character  of  the  insects  found  in  any  given 
region.  The  common  name  may  be  the  one  used  on  the 
ticket,  if  the  authority  recognizes  a  common  name. 

The  facts  that  may  be  learned  from  a  study  of  living 
beings  are  really  a  revelation  of  the  Creator's  way  of 
working  out  these  things  in  his  universe,  of  which  you 
and  I  are  a  part.  And  as  the  study  grows  upon  the 
student  he  will  probably  take  one  of  two  attitudes: 
wonder  that  he  is  so  small  a  part  of  the  life  kingdom,  or 
the  marvel  that  so  defenseless  an  animal,  a  creature  so 
frail  physically  as  man,  does  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
myriads  of  animals  to  be  found  in  air,  on  sea,  and  on  land. 
"Reverence  is  vital  to  morality;  and  whatever  quickens 
within  us  the  feeling  of  dependence  on  a  higher  power, 
whatever  leads  us  devoutly  to  admire  the  order,  beauty, 
or  mystery  of  the  universe,"  is  good  for  the  individual 
well-being  of  man,  the  highest  of  God's  created  beings. 


ORDERS  OF  INSECTS. 

Coleoptera — (Sheath  wings),  Beetles. 

Orthoptera — (Straight  wings),  Grasshoppers,  Crickets, 
Cockroaches. 

Hemiptera,  Bugs. 

Lepidoptera — (Scaly  wings),  Moths  and  Butterflies. 

Hymenoptera — (Membrane  wings) ,  Bees,  Ants,  Wasps. 

Diptera — (Two  wings),  Flies. 

Odonata,  Dragon  Flies. 

Ephemerida,  May  Flies. 

Plecoptera,  Stone  Flies. 

Neuroptera — (Nerve  wings),  Dobsons,  Lace-winged 
Flies,  Ant  Lions. 

Siphonaptera,  Fleas. 


57 


CHAPTER  VII. 
FIELD  WORK  ON  COLEOPTERA. 

When  on  the  way  to  the  "happy  hunting  grounds" 
of  beetles,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  beetles  most 
easily  found  are  the  beneficial  sorts,  hence  one  must  not 
make  haste  to  kill  all  the  beetles  that  he  finds.  If  you 
wish  to  be  sure  of  finding  only  harmful  sorts,  go  to  the 
granary,  the  wheat  bins,  old  meal  chests,  flour  bins; 
or  out  to  the  garden  where  potatoes,  squash,  or  pumpkins 
are  growing.  The  beetles  whose  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
bark  or  under  the  bark  of  trees,  and  whose  larvae  on 
hatching  burrow  under  the  bark,  are  among  our  exceed- 
ingly troublesome  insects;  but  going  after  them  would, 
in  the  hands  of  an  amateur,  mean  more  harm  than  help 
to  the  tree.  Better  leave  this  task  to  the  woodpeckers 
and  the  flickers ;  they  have  more  sense  in  such  matters 
than  you  and  I  have..  On  a  summer  evening,  any 
blundering  June  bug  that  comes  thumping  against  the 
screen  door  and  goes  sprawling  on  his  back  in  the  porch 
corner — take  him!  It  would  be  a  sin  not  to  dispose  of 
him  immediately  by  way  of  the  killing  bottle.  He  may 
be  the  very  same  villain  that,  earlier  in  the  season,  lived 
underground  and  ate  off  the  grain  roots,  or  grass  roots, 
or  geranium  roots,  leaving  the  top  of  the  plants  to  die  in 
each  case.  If  you  are  to  find  beneficial  beetles  go  to  the 
trash  pile  in  the  back  yard;  to  the  old  grass  or  leaf  pile 
which  is  partly  decayed;  to  the  manure  pile  in  the  alley; 
to  some  unburied  carcass  of  dog,  hen,  or  mouse.  Hang  a 

59 


60  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

dead  mouse  up  in  some  out-of-the-way  place,  and  you  will 
probably  be  able  to  attract  some  carrion  beetles  to  the 
carcass,  and  then  you  will  be  privileged  to  watch  them 
at  their  valuable  work.  In  the  dust  of  the  farm  road 
you  may  be  able  to  discover  some  of  the  tumble  bugs 
making  away  with  the  horse  droppings  to  provision  their 
nests  for  their  young. 

If  you  are  willing  to  get  clear  down  to  the  surface  of 
the  beaten  path  across  a  vacant  lot,  or  the  sandy  ground 
at  the  edge  of  the  garden  path,  you  may  discover  the  hole 
made  by  some  tiger  beetle.  In  order  to  go  through  its 
larval  days,  after  the  manner  of  all  tiger  beetles,  it  burrows 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  several  inches,  then 
turns  about  in  the  hole  it  has  made  and  waits  till  some 
insect  comes  in  its  way;  then  it  hauls  the  unlucky  victim 
down  far  into  its  burrow  and  feasts  sumptuously. 
When  it  is  again  hungry  it  goes  up  to  the  opening  of  the 
burrow,  and  again  lies  in  wait  like  some  tiger  in  its  lair. 
The  adult  tiger  beetles  are  slim,  trim-bodied  insects  with 
strong,  though  slender  legs,  big  eyes,  and  a  general  air  of 
alertness;  they  are  swift  runners  and  catch  their  prey — 
other  insects — in  open  fight,  simply  by  being  quicker  and 
pouncing  upon  them. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  valuable  beetles 
cannot  be  found  unless  you  go  to  a  pond,  or  a  river  which 
has  pools  and  shallows.  These  beetles  do  their  work  in 
water  where  vegetable  or  animal  remains  are  continually 
collecting  and  decaying.  These  things  the  beetles  eat, 
and  thus  serve  to  keep  the  quiet  water  bodies  rid  of  this 
foul  matter.  Otherwise  such  waters  would  be  very 
unhealthful  to  other  creatures,  as  cattle,  wild  fowl,  field 
animals,  or  the  human  family.  In  going  after  these 
beetles  one  must  take  a  new  pail,  not  an  old  rusty  one,  a 


FIELD    WORK   ON   COLEOPTERA.  6 1 

rake,  and  some  sort  of  dipper.  The  water  net  may  be 
used,  or  an  ordinary  tin  dipper  tied  to  the  end  of  a  long 
stick  will  do  very  well.  Or  someone  of  the  party  may 
wear  hip  boots,  and  you  can  make  him  do  all  the  "  bag- 
ging" of  the  game. 

The  water  scavenger  beetles  may  usually  be  found 
clinging  to  grass  stems  under  water;  though  they  may  be 
found  occasionally  coming  to  the  surface  for  a  store  of  air, 


FIG.  24. — Great  water  scavenger  beetle,  Hydrophilus  triangul 
(Natural  size.)  (Kellogg.) 

FIG.  25. — Egg  case  of  great  water  scavenger  beetle.  (Twice  nat 
size.)  (Kellogg.) 


laris. 
'wice   natural 


or  as  they  paddle  from  place  to  place.  The  one  who 
goes  on  a  beetle  hunt  of  this  kind  cannot  go  with  whoop 
and  hurrah,  plunging  with  a  swish  into  the  water;  that 
would  be  the  last  of  specimen  hunting  for  several  hours 
at  least.  One  has  to  go  about  it  quietly,  creating  as  little 
disturbance  as  possible  in  the  region  to  be  investigated. 
It  is  a  sort  of  a  Mahomet-going-to-the-mountain  game. 
If  you  give  them  half  a  chance  to  know  that  you  are 
coming  they  will  disappear;  and  don't  think  that  they 
will  come  out  again  until  they  are  reasonably  sure  that 


62 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


you  are  out  of  their  way.     It  takes  patience;  but  it  pays. 

To  discover  God's  sure  and  marvelous  ways  of  working, 
in  these  tiny  creatures,  cannot  fail 
to  make  the  discoverer  desire  to  live 
more  fully  and  faithfully  in  doing  his 
own  tasks  from  day  to  day. 

For  flower  beetles,  one  should  go 
to  the  woodland,  the  pasture,  or  the 
hillside,  where  elder  bushes,  golden-rod, 
yarrow,  or  wild  asters  grow.  Beat  a 
flower  cluster  over  your  handkerchief, 
and  you  may  beat  out  several  kinds  of 
beetles  which  have  been  eating  pollen 
— and  this  is  Delmonico  fare  for  these 
beetles — and  incidentally  pollenating 
the  various  flower  clusters,  therein  lies 
the  value  of  the  beetles,  of  course. 

The  next  family  of  toad  stools  you 
find,  pick  the  ripest  of  the  big  ones, 

and  there  may  be  found"  among  the  gills  of  the  old  top, 

flattish,   rather   small,    slim-bodied   beetles,    with    short 

wing-covers.     These  are  the  rove  beetles, 

and    the    service    rendered    is    that    of 

scavengers.     In  all  this  you  do  not  have 

in  mind  the  pursuing  and  killing  of  in- 
sects, but  the  knowledge  which  can  come 

only  through    finding  the   beetle  in  its 

haunts  and  following  it  around  to  see  how 

it  lives  and  moves  and  has  its  being.  There      FIG.  27.— A  flower 

will  always  be  room  for  another  Agassiz,  beetle,  Euphoria 

and  who  knows  where  he  will  be  found  ? 

The  one  who  best  studies  aquatic  insects  of  all  kinds 

does  so  flat  on  his  face,  watching  the  water  depths  for 


FIG.  26. — Larva  of 
great  water  scavenger 
beetle.  (Kellogg,  after 
Schiodte.) 


FIELD    WORK   ON   COLEOPTERA.  63 

the  queer  happenings  there.  An  occasional  fly  'or  moth 
may  fall  into  the  water,  and  one  of  the  diving  beetles  will 
dart  alongside  and  appropriate  the  unlucky  insect  for  its 
noonday  meal.  Across  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  straight 
lines,  zigzags,  or  circles,  go  the  whirligigs.  After  watch- 
ing them  for  some  time  to  see  whether  they  swim  in  schools 
or  singly,  whether  they  dive  when  nothing  disturbs  them, 
and  what  they  eat,  it  will  make  an  interesting  study  to 
make  the  attempt  to  get  some  of  them  into  your  pail. 
If  you  succeed  in  capturing  one,  turn  it  on  its  back,  and 
you  will  be  rewarded  by  seeing  it  put  out  its  antennae  and 
work  its  oar-legs  back  and  forth.  Notice  whether  the 
antennas  are  thread-like  or  clubbed  or  flattened  on  the 
outer  end.  The  two  hind  pairs  of  legs  are  short  and  very 
much  flattened  and  a  little  widened — excellent  oars! 
The  front  legs  are  longer  and  very  slender,  not  good  row- 
ing instruments,  but  excellent  "hands"  to  seize  such  food 
as  may  come  in  their  way. 

At  night,  when  summer  has  really  come,  the  fireflies 
may  be  seen,  at  first  rising  out  of  the  grass  where  they 
have  been  during  the  day.  The  next  morning  a  little 
search  of  the  place  where  you  saw  them  rise  the  night 
before,  may  reveal  some  of  these  fireflies  down  near  the 
ground.  Are  they  eating  or  resting — sleeping?  When 
fireflies  first  begin  to  appear  in  the  summer  a  little  patient 
digging  below  the  ground  surface  in  the  same  region 
may  find  some  of  the  larvae,  worm-like  creatures.  It  is 
supposed  that  both  adults  and  larvae  are  carnivorous, 
eating  soft-bodied  animals  smaller  than  themselves. 

On  the  potato  tops,  search  for  the  leaf-eating  ten- 
lined  potato  beetle,  with  cream-colored  body  and  ten 
dark  lines  running  lengthwise  of  its  elytra.  A  search 
will  surely  reveal  larvae,  pupae,  eggs,  and  adults  in  the 


64  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

same  field.  Can  you  find  small  and  large  larvae?  Do 
these  beetles  have  any  enemies  coming  under  your  obser- 
vation here? 

In  setting  up  a  beetle  to  go  into  the  collection  box 
the  pin  should  go  through  the  body  to  one  side  of  the 
middle  line,  through  one  of  the  elytra,  never  between  the 
elytra.  Set  the  beetle  well  up  toward  the  top  of  the  pin, 
on  the  upper  third,  perhaps,  so  that  the  insect  can  be 
handled  conveniently,  and  at  the  same  time  the  legs  will 
be  far  enough  above  the  paper  to  be  removed  from  the 
danger  of  being  broken  off.  In  classifying  a  beetle  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  number  of  joints  in  the  tarsus, 
whether  the  joints  are  all  equally  movable  upon  each  other 
or  not.  The  insertion  of  the  basal  joint  of  the  hind  leg, 
with  respect  to  the  first  segment  of  the  abdomen,  also 
comes  in  as  part  of  the  necessary  means  toward  finding 
what  particular  beetle  you  may  have  under  examination. 


COLEOPTERA. 
CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  Hard,  horny,  or  thick,  leathery  front  wings. 

2.  Thin,  gauzy  hind  wings,  folded  under  front  wings 
when  the  insect  is  at  rest. 

3.  Mandibles  developed  for  seizing  food;  some  sorts 
have  very  large  mandibles. 

4.  Some  members  of  the  order  have  the  wing-covers 
short  and  the  wings  also  short;  these  beetles  run 
rather  than  fly. 


COLEOPTERA. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  beetles.  It  is  made  up  of 
the  insects  often  called  bugs,  but  which  are  really  not 
bugs  at  all.  The  name,  Coleoptera,  is  made  from  two 
Greek  words,  koleos,  sheath,  and  ptera,  meaning  wings; 
hence  the  Coleoptera  are  the  Sheath  Wings  among  the 
insects.  The  front  wings  are  usually  hard  and  horny, 
often  brilliantly  colored  and  shiny.  They  are  not  useful 
for  flying,  but  are  literally  sheaths  for  the  true  wings, 
which  lie  under  these  sheath  wings.  The  true  wings  are 
thin  and  gauzy,  are  considerably  longer  than  the  sheath 
wings,  or  elytra;  and  when  not  in  use  are  folded  once' 
lengthwise,  plaited  like  a  fan,  and  then  are  tucked  away 
under  the  elytra.  If  one  watches  a  beetle  just  settling 
from  flight,  one  may  see  these  gauzy  flight  wings  and  just 
how  they  are  disposed  when  the  beetle  alights. 

Some  of  the  characteristic  beetle  haunts  may  already 
be  known  to  the  student  of  insects.  Some  beetles  must  be 
looked  for  in  the  pond  or  the  river;  but  most  of  them  are 
terrestrial  in  habit.  In  the  back  yard,  under  stones, 
boards,  and  leaf  piles;  under  the  woodpile; in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  some  decaying  carcass;  under  the  bark  of  some 
old  stump;  under  the  umbrella-like  top  of  some  toad 
stool;  in  the  hot,  dusty  road;  or  scuttling  across  your 
path  into  the  friendly  shelter  of  the  weeds  and  the  grasses ; 
in  the  golden-rod  and  the  blazing  star  clusters;  on  your 
melon  vines  or  in  your  cabbage  patch;  around  the  edges 
of  your  carpets;  in  the  flour  bins  or  among  the  stored 
grains — in  any  of  these  places  and  many  more  you  may 

67 


68  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

expect  to  find  beetles.  The  order  includes  some  of  our 
most  beneficial  insects  and  some  of  our  worst  fruit-eating 
and  grain-eating  pests. 

Government  entomologists  have  given  us  some  very 
startling  figures  on  the  enormous  yearly  losses  in  growing 
crops  due  to  insects  of  the  harmful  sorts.  According  to 
Riley,  the  yearly  loss  from  grain-  and  fruit-eating  insects 
foots  up  $15,000,000  more  than  the  cost  of  all  our  common 
schools  and  our  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Losses 
are  usually  estimated  in  dollars  and  cents;  that  is,  what 
the  products  would  have  brought  us  if  they  had  been 
allowed  to  mature.  But  an  equally  serious  view,  if  not 
more  serious,  is  the  loss  sustained  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  time  and  labor  expended  without  a  fair  return. 
We  are  told  that  an  annual  loss  of  ten  per  cent,  is  suffered 
yearly  by  agriculturists  and  fruit-growers  the  world  over. 
This  is  enormous,  and  would  not  be  endured  year  after 
year  if  it  occurred  from  almost  any  other  cause.  When 
one  reflects,  it  becomes  plain  that  this  loss  comes  about 
mainly  through  ignorance  of  the  causes,  and  partly 
through  neglect  of  known  effective  measures  of  prevention, 
as  well  as  through  the  conscious  or  unconscious  disturb- 
ance of  the  laws  which  preserve  the  balance  of  nature, 
whose  free  operation  serves  to  enable  one  pest  to  keep 
in  check  another  pest,  or  one  tribe  of  predaceous  animals 
to  decrease  the  numbers  of  an  injurious  tribe.  Take, 
for  example,  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  the  prairie 
and  woodland  snakes;  hardly  anyone  would  allow  a 
blue  racer  or  a  bull  snake  or  a  garter  snake  to  escape ;  and 
yet  the  gradual  killing  out  of  these  snakes  in  certain 
neighborhoods  has  led  to  large  crop  losses  through  the 
unrestrained  increase  of  gophers,  chipmunks,  mice,  and 
other  animals  which  constitute  the  food  of  these  valuable 


COLEOPTERA.  69 

animals.  Annually,  large  numbers  of  these  animals  are 
killed,  which  are  doing  their  best  to  preserve  the  balance 
of  nature.  Destroy  a  friend  and  you  invite  his  enemies 
to  become  your  enemies.  Destroy  predatory  insects  and 
birds — insectivorous  birds — or  the  weed  seed-eaters 
among  the  birds — and  you  invite  a  train  of  evils  beyond 
your  power  to  control.  Much  patient  investigation  is 
necessary  if  we  would  make  use  of  these  friends,  also 
readiness  to  make  use  of  information  whenever  it  offers 
in  order  to  know  which  insects  to  protect  and  which  to 
hunt  and  kill.  Be  it  said  for  birds,  before  we  approach 
the  subject  more  closely,  that  there  are  almost  no  birds  in 
our  agricultural  districts  that  do  not  do  more  good  than 
they  do  harm.  Again,  a  plant- eating  insect  is  not  to  be 
condemned  outright,  for  many  plant-eaters  among  the 
insects  help  to  keep  noxious  weeds  in  check. 

Some  of  the  beetles  which  are  beneficial  to  the  farmer 
and  the  fruit-grower,  and  which  should  be  protected  by 
them — and  by  all  other  people,  for  that  matter,  since,  so 
long  as  we  eat  food,  none  of  us  can  get  away  from  our 
connection  with  the  soil  and  its  products — are : 

Ladybird  beetles  Dung  beetles 

Carrion  beetles  Rove  beetles 

Checker  beetles  Whirligigs 

Soldier  beetles  Water  scavengers 

Blister  beetles  Fireflies 

Diving  beetles  Flower  beetles 

Tiger  beetles  Ground  beetles 
Tumble  bugs 

Among  the  list  of  beetles  just  mentioned  there  are 
some  that  deserve  special  notice,  not  only  for  their  help- 
fulness, but  also  because  their  feeding  habits  are  such  that 


70  .»*••       FIELD   ZOOEOGY. 

they  are  more  easily  caught  than  are  the  harmful  insects 
upon  which  they  prey.  Such  are  the  ladybirds,  small 
round-backed  beetles,  with  reddish  or  red  wing-covers, 
usually  marked  by  some  black  spots.  (Fig.  28.)  Then, 
again,  some  of  them  are  of  medium  or  large  size  and 
brightly-colored,  hence  easily  seen.  One  or  two  of  these 
ought  to  be  mentioned.  The  Searcher  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  ground  beetles,  measuring  about  two  inches 


FIG.  28. — Some  California  ladybird  beetles;  beginning  at  left  of  upper 
row,  the  species  are  Megilla  viiigera,  Coccinella  californica,  Coccinella  oculata, 
Hippodamia  convergens;  beginning  at  left  of  lower  row,  Coccinella  trifasciata, 
Coccinella  sanguinea,  Coccinella  abdominalis,  Megilla  maculala.  (Kellogg.) 

in  length,  reckoning  in  the  widely  extended,  slender 
legs.  (Fig.  29.)  The  hind  part  of  the  body  is  much  wider 
than  the  head  and  the  thorax.  Its  handsome  wing-covers 
are  green  with  a  red  stripe  around  the  outer  edge.  The 
under  part  of  the  body  is  brilliant  with  shades  of  blue, 
green,  copper,  and  bronze.  This  beetle  is  known  to  prey 
extensively  upon  cut-worms  and  to  climb  trees  in  search  of 
the  gypsy  moth  caterpillar.  The  Fiery  Hunter  is  another 
of  these  valuable  beetles.  It  is  a  little  slenderer  than  The 
Searcher,  but  its  appearance  is  similar.  The  wing-covers 
are  blackish,  marked  with  rows  of  bright  red  or  copper- 


COLEOPTERA.  71 

colored  spots  or  pits.     This  beetle  eats  large  numbers  of 
cut- worms  and  wire- worms  wherever  they  are  found. 

Many  of  the  ground  beetles,  all  of  which  are  beneficial, 
are  blackish-brown  or  black,  and  are  often  found  running 
about  on  the  ground  or  over  rubbish  and  manure  piles. 
These  all  have  slender  legs  and  are  good  runners.  Their 
business  is  honest  and  legitimate,  and  they  do  not  hide 
or  skulk  while  they  are  about  it.  They  are  all  predaceous 
or  are  valuable  scavengers,  and  should  be  carefully  pro- 
tected from  injury.  Take,  for  instance,  the  beetles  to 


FIG.  29.— The  Searcher. 

which^  has  been  given  the  name  Harpalus.  These  are 
eminently  helpful  beetles.  They  are  of  various  sizes, 
pitchy-black  in  color,  compactly  built,  thorax  and  abdo- 
men of  equal  width,  and  the  head  about  half  as  wide  as 
the  thorax.  The  sclerite  covering  the  pro  thorax  is  nearly 
square  and  meets  the  wing-covers  in  a  smooth  tight  joint 
without  constriction  or  ridge.  Some  of  these  beetles  are 
known  to  frequent  orchards,  where  they  search  for  the 
larvae  of  plum  curculios  and  codling  moths.  Another 
Harpalus  likes  especially  the  army  worm.  Some  others 
of  the  ground  beetles  are  dull  brownish-black,  while  others 
have  metallic  wing-covers. 


72 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


FIG.  30. — Ventral  aspect  of  a  carabid  beetle,  Galerita  janus.  i,  prosternum; 
2,  proe piste rnum;  3,  proepimeron;  4,  coxal  cavity;  5,  inflexed  side  of  pronotum; 
6,  mesosternum;  7,  mesoepisternum;  8,  mesoepimeron;  9,  metasternum;  10, 
antecoxal  piece;  n,  metaepisternum ;  12,  metaepimeron;  13,  inflexed  side  of 
elytron;  a,  sternum  of  an  abdominal  segment;  an,  antenna;  c,  coxa;  /,  femur; 
Ip,  labial  palpus;  md,  mandible;  mp,  maxillary  palpus;  /,  trochanter;  tb,  tibia; 
ts,  tarsus.  (Folsom.) 


COLEOPTERA.  73 

Some  of  the  beetle  pests  whose  enemies  ought  to  be 
protected,  and  whose  effective  destruction  ought  to  be 
sought  with  every  appearance  of  the  pests  are : 

Fruit  and  grain  weevils  The  Borers 

Rose  chafers  Flea  beetles 

Potato  beetles  June  bugs 

White  grubs  Wire  worms 

Carpet  beetles  Cutworms 

Curculios  Leaf  chafers 

The  elm-leaf  beetle  is  one  of  the  most  destructive 
enemies  of  forest  trees,  and  it  should  be  recognized  and 
destroyed  wherever  found.  The  beetle  is  yellowish  with 
some  black  spots  on  the  thorax  and  one  black  stripe  on 
the  inner  edge  of  each  elytron.  The  prosternum  and  the 
legs  are  yellow;  the  remaining  under  parts  are  back.  It 
is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  Its  yellow  eggs  are 
to  be  found  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves  in  masses,  and 
these  should  be  crushed  whenever  found.  From  these 
eggs  hatch  larvae  or  grubs,  marked  with  black  or  yellow; 
these  skeletonize  the  leaves,  or  eat  out  the  green  paren- 
chymatous  parts  of  the  leaves,  leaving  the  veins  and  part 
of  the  epidermis.  They  then  pupate,  and  when  ready 
to  do  this  they  crawl  down  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and 
burrow  a  short  distance  beneath  the  surface  but  close  to 
the  roots,  or  rather  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  The  adult 
beetle  winters  over,  under  old  leaf  piles,  in  other  rubbish, 
or  in  the  hollows  of  trees.  Domestic  fowls,  robins,  blue- 
birds, thrushes,  cedar  birds,  and  catbirds  are  the  most 
effective  enemies  in  getting  rid  of  these,  pests,  both  in  the 
adult  and  the  larval  stage.  There  is  always,  in  such 
cases,  some  effective  bird  ally  which  can  be  relied  upon  to 
accomplish  the  destruction  of  the  insect  pest.  Encourage, 


74  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

then,  the  coming  of  the  birds,  and  protect  them  after  they 
are  with  you  by  insisting  that  they  shall  not  be  molested, 
neither  as  to  their  nests  nor  as  to  themselves.  Insure  a 
bird's  personal  safety,  and  he  will  stay  with  you  and  will 
bring  along  his  family  and  a  host  of  relatives  besides. 

Other  insect  pests  of  the  beetle  kind  and  their  de- 
stroyers might  be  mentioned: 

Potato  beetle 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak  Quail 

Mongolian  pheasant  Yellow-billed     and     black- 

(lately  introduced)  billed  cuckoo 

Weevils  and  leaf  beetles 

Yellow-billed  and  black-  Towhees 

billed  cuckoos  Kingbirds 

Sparrows  English  sparrows 

Phoebes  Red-winged  blackbirds 

Twelve -spotted  cucumber  beetle 

Quails  Prairie  chickens 

Grubs  of  various  kinds,  principally  of  May  beetles 

Domestic  fowls  Robins 

Blackbirds 

Click  beetles 

Flickers  Kingbirds 

Phoebes  Yellow-billed     and    black- 
Baltimore  orioles  billed  cuckoos 

May  beetles 

Blue  jays 

Borers 

Downy  woodpeckers         Flickers 
Hairy  woodpeckers 


COLEOPTERA. 


75 


In  the  light  of  this  body  of  facts  and  many  others  that 
might  be  enumerated,  the  fruit-grower  and  the  farmer 
should  not  only  use  insecticides,  but  should  also  avail 


K 


FIG.  31. — Various  forms  of  antennae.  A,  filiform,  Euschistus;  B,  setaceous, 
Plathemis;  C,  moniliform,  Catogenus;  D,  geniculate,  Bombus;  f,  flagellum;  p, 
pedicle;  s,  scape;  E,  irregular,  Phormia;  a,  arista;  F,  setaceous,  Galerita;  G, 
clavate,  Anosia;  H,  pectinate,  male  Ptilodactyla;  I,  lamellate,  Lachnosterna; 
J,  capitate,  Megalodachne;  K,  irregular,  Dineutus.  (Folsom.) 

themselves  of  the  services  of  their  bird  neighbors  by 
protecting  them  to  the  full  extent  of  the  law;  and  where 
no  law  covers  the  case  they  ought  to  be  wise  enough  to 


^5  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

accomplish  the  enactment  of  a  law  which  will  protect 
their  bird  friends  from  the  heedless  small  boy  with  sling 
shot  or  rifle,  and  from  the  man  who  hunts  simply  for  the 

sake  of  killing. 

The  families  of  beetles  listed  as  beneficial  beetles 
are  to  be  understood  as  having  gained  this  place  through 
their  habits  of  feeding  upon  other  insects  which  are  injuri- 
ous to  valuable  plants  or  to  predaceous  insects,  or  are 


FIG.  32. — Different  forms  of  legs  and  tarsi  of  beetles. 

and  Comstock.} 


(Kellogg,  after  LeConte 


useful  because  of  the  beneficial  habit  of  eating  decaying 
animal  remains,  excrementitious  matter,  and  other  refuse ; 
or  they  may  be  pollenizers  of  flowers. 

Structurally,  the  beetles  differ  from  the  bugs  in 
another  important  respect.  Their  mouth  parts  are  adapted 
for  biting  and  chewing.  They  have  strong  mandibles  and 
well-developed  palpi.  This  order  of  insects  has  thousands 
of  representatives,  and  is  one  of  the  most,  if  not  the 
most,  difficult  to  classify,  owing  to  their  almost  endless 


COLEOPTERA. 


77 


diversities  of  form.  The  forms  of  coleopterous  antennae 
and  tarsi  are  various,  and  constitute  type  forms  for  nam- 
ing antennae  and  tarsi  of  other  insects.  (Fig.  32.) 

With  the  exception  of  the  blister  beetles,  all  the 
Coleoptera  have  complete  metamorphosis.  They  lay  eggs, 
which  hatch  into  larvae  or  grubs;  these  increase  in  size 
and  moult  several  times,  then  pupate;  and,  after  a  time, 


*  *r 

FIG.  33. — Metamorphosis  of  a  beetle.;     Cyllene  pictus.     A,  larva;  B,  pupa; 
C,  imago.      X  3.     (Folsom.) 

emerge  from  the  pupal  case,  adult  beetles.  (Fig.  33 .)  The 
blister  beetles,  where  their  life  history  is  known,  also  lay 
eggs;  but  the  larval  stage  is  much  extended,  and  after 
the  different  moultings  the  insect  assumes  different  larval 
forms  suggestive  of  other  beetles  in  their  larval  stages. 
(Fig.  34.)  The  first  larval  form  is  peculiar  to  the  blister 
beetles,  and  is  given  the  name  of  the  triungulin  larva;  the 
second  larval  form  is  much  like  the  larva  of  a  ground 
beetle ;  the  third  moult  reveals  a  new  larva  somewhat  like 


yg  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

the  June  bug  larva,  but  straighter  and  smaller;  after  the 
next  moult  there  appears  a  larva  much  resembling  the 
June  bug  larva,  even  to  the  curving  of  the  lumpish  body. 
The  insect  grows  rapidly  from  now  on,  and  then  pupates; 
but  even  the  pupation  is  strange  and  much  extended. 
The  larva  digs  into  the  ground  a  little  way  and  moults 


F 

FIG.  34. — Stages  in  the  hypermetamorphosis  of  Epicauta.  A,  triungulin; 
B,  carabidoid  stage  of  second  larva;  C,  ultimate  stage  of  second  larva;  D,  coarctate 
larva;  E,  pupa;  F,  imago.  E  is  species  cinera;  the  others  are  vittata.  All 
enlarged  except  F.  (Folsom,  after  Riley,  from  Trans.  St.  Louis  Acad.  Science.} 

a  fourth  time,  and  frequently  passes  the  winter  in  this 
stage;  in  the  spring  two  more  moultings  may  take  place, 
and  then  comes  the  pupa  stage  proper;  this  lasts  for  only 
a  few  days,  and  then  out  comes  the  adult  blister  beetle 
like  its  father  and  mother.  Some  of  these  blister  beetles 
feed  on  locust  eggs,  others  eat  potato  leaves  alongside  the 
potato  beetles,  and  others  feed  on  bees'  eggs  and  honey. 
In  the  immature  stages,  so  far  as  known,  their  food 
consists  of  eggs  laid  by  other  insects. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
FIELD  WORK  ON  ORTHOPTERA. 

If  the  school-house  is  near  fields  and  farm  lands, 
the  study  of  insects  is  easy;  but  trolley  car  or  steam  car, 
or  wagons  may  be  utilized  for  putting  one's  self  in  touch 
with  regions  where  insects  of  many  kinds  live  and  work. 
A  dead  insect  is  not  so  profitable  for  study  as  is  an  insect 
alive;  the  most  interesting  facts  of  the  insect's  everyday 
living  are  lacking  if  you  take  the  insect  out  of  its  natural 
surroundings.  Hence  there  must  grow  upon  the  student 
of  insects  the  habit  of  observing  what  is  going  on  about 
him  in  places  where  insects  live,  what  the  insects  are 
doing,  and  whether  any  other  living  being,  plant  or 
insect  or  man,  is  the  gainer  thereby. 

The  food-getting  instinct  is  at  work  in  the  will  of  the 
grasshopper  when  he  eats  up  our  lawn  grasses  and 
shrubbery;  and  it  is  a  successful  insect  from  the  grass- 
hopper point  of  view,  though  not  valuable  from  the 
human  point  of  view  at  all.  Some  knowledge  will 
already  be  in  possession  of  the  students  as  to  where  to 
go  to  look  for  hoppers  and  crickets.  Sunny  hedge  rows; 
hot  dusty  roads;  late  garden  patches — all  should  be 
visited  for  grasshoppers  and  locusts. 

Discover : 

Whether  their  colors  are  protective  so  far  as  you  are 
concerned, 

Whether  they  have  any  enemies  besides  yourself, 
Whether  they  sing  at  this  time  of  day, 

79 


80  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

Whether  the  locusts  sing  at  any  time. 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  catch  the  leaping 
orthopters  without  something  to  lengthen  one's  reach, 
so  be  sure  to  take  your  insect  net  on  this  trip. 

Late  in  the  afternoon  of  some  summer  day,  while 
you  are  sitting  on  the  veranda,  you  may  hear  a  shrill 
singing.  Get  up  and  follow  the  sound,  cautiously  so  as 
-not  to  disturb  the  singer.  If  it  sounds  like  an  unusually 
shrill  cricket  song  you  may  have  to  peer  around  con- 
siderably before  you  see  the  pale,  ghost-like  creature, 
with  the  big  voice  but  the  small  body.  Ten  chances  to 
one  it  is  a  tree  cricket,  and  you  will  find  it  on  the  vine 
or  some  near  shrubbery,  in  the  shadiest  portion,  singing 
for  very  happiness  as  it  begins  searching  for  its  evening 
meal.  Can  you  find  what  it  is  eating?  Is  it  a  male  or  a 
female  cricket?  Can  you  tell  from  its  mouth  parts,  and 
from  where  it  is  found,  whether  it  sucks  liquid  food  or 
eats  leaves? 

Praying  mantids  may  be  looked  for  at  the  same  time, 
or  they  may  be  found  out  in  the  flower  garden,  crawling 
warily  about  from  stalk  to  stalk,  praying  occasionally, 
with  uplifted  hands,  that  some  insect  may  come  their  way. 
During  the  height  of  summer  these  mantids  will  come 
to  your  light  if  you  leave  your  window  open.  In  Septem- 
ber, or  later,  they  may  be  quite  sluggish,  when  you  find 
them  on  plants  or  shrubs.  They  will  probably  have 
laid  their  eggs  by  that  time,  and  are  soon  to  end  their 
lives,  their  good  work  done,  and  their  mission  of  providing 
for  their  young  accomplished;  hence  it  will  not  be  wrong 
to  catch  them  for  your  examination  or  to  put  them  into 
your  collection  box;  although  a  collection  is  valuable 
because  you  know  about  what  you  have  in  it,  and  not 
for  the  specimens  themselves. 


FIELD    WORK    ON    ORTHOPTERA.  8 1 

After  nightfall,  in  a  barn  feed-room,  or  in  some  bakery, 
or  press-room  of  a  daily  paper,  or  sometimes  in  the  most 
cleanly  kitchen,  especially  if  it  is  in  an  old  house,  if  you 
step  carefully  and  keep  still  for  some  time  after  entering, 
then  suddenly  strike  a  light,  you  will  be  almost  sure  to 
find  some  roaches,  big  or  little.  Around  a  wood  pile, 
where  there  is  plenty  of  chips,  you  may  find  our  native 
roach,  shining  black,  and  darting  slippery- wise  among 
the  chips  as  you  try  to  get  it.  Around  the  drain-pipe  of 
the  wash-room  look  for  the  light-brown,  thin-bodied 
croton  bug. 

On  your  trip  to  the  open  meadows  look  for  field 
crickets  and  meadow  green  grasshoppers  with  long 
slender  antennae  which  they  wave  solemnly  up  and  down 
as  they  look  at  you,  that  is,  if  you  keep  still. 

If  you  wish  to  find  walking  sticks  you  will  have  to 
go  to  trees  or  shrubbery,  and  look  on  the  bare  twigs  for 
this  new  sort  of  twig.  You  will  find  that  the  one  addi- 
tional requisite  for  insects  that  are  colored  like  the  things 
they  live  on,  is  to  remain  motionless  when  an  enemy  is 
around.  So  you  will  have  to  be  patient  long  enough  to 
quiet  their  suspicions,  before  you  will  be  rewarded  by 
seeing  them  go  about  their  business  naturally  and  un- 
afraid. And  then  will  be  your  chance  to  learn  about 
them. 

Crickets,  contrary  to  the  usual  belief,  are  not  uni- 
formly eaters  of  clothing,  and  therefore  to  be  killed  on 
sight.  Field  crickets,  out-of-door  crickets  of  all  kinds, 
would  not  know  cloth  if  they  saw  it,  and  certainly  would 
not  know  it  for  food.  The  domestic  cricket  is  somewhat 
a  vegetable  feeder,  but  is  more  likely  to  be  a  scavenger; 
so  do  not  relegate  to  the  gasoline  bottle  every  cricket  you 
find. 

6 


82  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

Praying  mantids  may  easily  be  captured,  as  they  do 
not  usually  fly;  but  you  must  be  careful  to  keep  your 
ringers  out  of  the  reach  of  their  strong  mandibles.  It  is 
better  to  offer  them  a  twig  or  a  leaf  to  sit  on  than  to  offer 
your  ringer.  They  may  be  kept  a  considerable  length  of 
time  if  they  are  provided  with  food,  and  they  will  be 
content  to  stay  only  under  those  circumstances ;  you  must 
also  give  them  a  drink  once  in  a  while.  Such  insects  are 
used  to  drinking  the  dew  or  the  rain  drops  off  the  plants 
over  which  they  crawl ;  so  if  you  lightly  sprinkle  a  mantis 
you  will  probably  be  delighted  by  seeing  the  curious 
way  it  has  of  drinking,  bringing  the  big  front  legs  into  use 
for  drawing  down  some  water  drop  from  the  top  of  the 
head  or  the  eye,  and  slowly  sucking  it  in  through  the 
thirsty  mouth.  They  like  flies  especially,  also  cabbage 
worms,  gnats,  young  and  soft- bodied  grasshoppers,  and 
will  even  eat  caterpillars.  If  it  is  a  female  mantis,  and 
you  are  able  to  keep  her  till  late  in  the  summer,  the  egg 
mass  will  be  likely  to  be  found  around  where  she  has  been 
living,  though  she  may  have  been  shrewd  enough  to  glue 
them  up  in  some  place  where  you  will  be  unlikely  to  find 
them,  that  is,  if  she  has  formed  the  opinion  that  you  are 
only  a  very  big  insect  after  all;  for,  like  all  careful  insect 
mothers,  she  looks  well  to  the  safety  of  the  little  mantids, 
although  she  is  never  to  see  them. 

In  setting  up  a  locust  for  a  collection  the  pin  should 
be  thrust  well  through  the  thorax,  so  that  the  jumping 
legs  and  the  shorter  front  pairs  will  rest  on  the  ground 
in  natural  position.  Then  set  the  pin  with  the  insect  on  it, 
into  the  trough  of  the  drying  board.  Spread  one  elytron 
by  lifting  it  first  up,  then  outward;  then  spread  the  flight 
wing  on  the  same  side,  and  weight  both  down  with  a 
square  of  glass.  Let  the  locust  remain  long  enough  in  the 


FIELD    WORK    ON    ORTHOPTERA.  83 

drying  board  for  the  wing  joints  and  ribs  to  dry,  and  the 
wings  thus  keep  their  position.  The  insect  may  then  be 
put  away  in  the  collection  box.  It  will  not  be  necessary 
to  spread  the  wings  of  any  others  of  the  order;  the  points 
of  classification  necessary  for  the  other  orthopters  rest  on 
other  characteristics. 


ORTHOPTERA. 
CHARACTERISTICS. 

Front    wings    straight-margined    and    leathery    or 
parchment-like  and  overlapping  when  not  in  use; 
used  as  wing-covers  and  as  balancers. 
Hind  wings   used   for   flight,   variously   colored  or 
colorless,  and  folded  fanwise  when  not  in  use. 
Effective  mandibles,  either  smooth  or  notched  on 
their  inner  edges. 
Cockroaches 

(a)  Body  thin 'and  flattened. 

(b)  Mandibles  notched. 

Praying  mantids 

(a)   Front  pair  of  legs  much  larger  than  the 
other  legs  and  fitted  for  seizing  and  grasp- 
ing. 

Short -horned  grasshoppers. 

(a)  Hind  pair  of  legs  much  stouter  than  the 
other  two  pairs. 

(b)  Antennae  shorter  than  the  body. 
Long-horned  grasshoppers. 

(a)  Hind  pair  of  legs  stouter  than  the  other  two 
pairs. 

(b)  Antennae  longer  than  the  body. 

Crickets. 

(a)  Hind   pair  of  legs   stouter  than   the   two 
other  pairs. 

(b)  Antennae  long   and   slender,     often    much 
longer  than  the  body. 

Walking  sticks. 

(a)  The  three  pairs  of  legs  similar  but  long  and 
very  slender. 

(b)  Body  stick-like. 


ORTHOPTERA. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  derived  from  the  straight- 
margined,  nearly  parallel-sided  front  wings  or  elytra. 
All  the  Orthoptera  have  biting  mouth-parts,  and  bite  off 
and  chew  their  food,  which  is  usually  living  plants, 
especially  green  leaves;  although  there  is  one  family 
within  the  order  which  preys  on  other  insects,  and 
another  family  prefers  dried  vegetable  or  animal  refuse. 

The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete,  the  young,  when 
hatched,  resembling  the  parents  except  in  size  and 
possession  of  wings.  This  is  the  order  of  the  grasshoppers, 
the  katydids,  the  crickets,  the  cockroaches,  the  praying 
mantids  and  the  walking  sticks.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
spring  one  may  find  tiny  grasshoppers  which  have  recently 
hatched  out;  tiny  slow-moving  creatures,  which  do  little 
leaping  at  this  stage  of  their  existence.  Among  the  leap- 
ing Orthoptera  the  hind  legs  are  very  large  and  strong, 
and  when  the  insect  is  standing  still  or  walking,  the  knees 
stand  much  higher  than  the  back  of  the  insect.  (Fig.  35.) 
During  the  summer  evenings,  from  twilight  until  dawn 
comes  over  the  eastern  hills,  one  may  hear  the  constant 
hum  of  insect  voices,  or  rather  sounds  without  voices, 
for  no  insect  has  vocal  chords  which  may  be  set  into 
vibration  by  currents  of  air  after  the  manner  of  the  human 
voice  production.  Almost  all  this  music  comes  from  the 
Orthoptera.  Besides  the  booming  of  the  bumblebee, 
the  buzz  of  the  flies,  and  the  shrilling  of  the  mosquito, 
there  is  but  one  famous  singer,  and  that  is  the  cicada. 

87 


88 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


Besides  being  singers,  the  Orthoptera  are  high 
jumpers.  Talk  of  "high  jump"  records!  Any  lusty 
grasshopper  goes  a  long  way  toward  beating  the  world 
record  every  time  he  jumps.  If  he  sets  his  heart  on  a 
juicy  leaf  six  feet  away,  lo !  he  is  there.  Or,  if  you  pursue 
him,  he  will  do  an  eight-  or  a  ten-foot  stunt  before  he  will 
let  you  catch  him.  Think  of  an  insect  two  inches  long 
jumping,  say,  eight  feet,  ninety-six  inches!  At  this  rate 


auditory  organ 
ocellus 
fiead    compound  eye  I 


-ovipositor 


femur' 

tibia/ 
x 
tarsal  segments 

FlG-  35-— Locust  (enlarged)  with  external  parts  named.     (Kellogg.) 

a  six-foot  man  would  have  to  jump  two  hundred  eighty- 
eight  feet  to  keep  up  with  the  humble  grasshopper. 
But,  then,  the  record  of  the  grasshopper,  marvelous  as  it 
is,  is  not  to  be  compared  with  the  capabilities  in  that 
direction,  of  the  fleas.  An  ordinary  flea,  under  stress  of 
circumstances,  will  jump  from  four  to  five  feet;  that  is, 
an  insect  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long  will  jump  forty- 
eight  or  sixty  inches— three  hundred  sixty-four  or  four 
hundred  eighty  times  its  own  length.  This  is  a  long 


ORTHOPTERA.  89 

way  ahead  of  the  proud  genus  Homo,  and  the  fleas  have 
no  preliminary  training  for  such  extraordinary  feats,  either. 
Of  the  six  families  composing  the  order,  three  are 
silent  and  do  not  leap,  though  there  are  some  extraor- 
dinary runners  among  them ;  and  the  other  three  families 
both  sing  and  leap.  This  music  is  all  night  music,  how- 
ever ;  for  if  a  katydid  were  to  betray  his  whereabouts  while 
the  birds  are  astir,  there  wquld  not  be  left  enough  of  him 
to  tell  the  tale.  This  singing  is  done  in  different  ways 


FiG.  36. — A  short-horned  grasshopper.     (Kellogg.) 

by  different  members  of  the  order.  When  the  locust 
sings  at  rest,  it  is  rasping  the  inner  surface  of  the  broad 
hind  thighs  across  the  roughened  surface  of  the  front  wings 
as  they  lie  close  to  the  sides  of  the  body,  much  as  one 
draws  a  knife  across  a  whet-stone,  only  back  and  forth. 
When  the  locust  rattles  as  he  goes  whizzing  through  the 
air,  he  is  striking  the  front  margin  of  the  hind  wings  back 
and  forth  over  the  hind  margin  of  the  front  wings.  When 
the  cricket  sings  on  the  hearth,  he  is  holding  up  his  front 
wings  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  and  is  rub- 
bing together  the  specially  modified  surfaces  of  their 
basal  regions.  The  tree  crickets,  the  katydids,  and  the 
meadow-green  grasshoppers  have  much  the  same  musical 
apparatus  as  have  the  crickets.  This  insect  method  of 
making  sound  is  called  stridulation. 


9o 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


According  to  Comstock,  the  three  singing  and  leap- 
ing orthopterous  families  are  the  Acrididae,  short-horned 
grasshoppers;  the  Locustidae,  long-horned  grasshoppers, 
generally  green;  and  the  Gryllidae,  or  crickets. 

The  short-horned  grasshoppers  are  the  grasshoppers 
commonly  called  locusts.  The  Lubber  grasshopper  of  the 
South  and  the  West  belongs  here.  Its  body  is  large  and 
clumsy,  and  its  wings  are  reduced  to  mere  pads. 


FIG.  37. — A  long-horned  grasshopper.     (Kellogg,) 

The  second  class,  really  the  locusts  or  long-horned 
hoppers,  includes  the  meadow-green  hoppers,  (Fig.  37), 
the  katydids,  with  long  thread-like  antennas  often  longer 
than  the  body,  the  shield-backed  grasshoppers,  and  the 
cricket-like  hoppers. 

In  practically  all  of  these,  the  hind  legs  are  longer  than 
the  front  legs  or  the  middle  pair.  The  shield-backed 
grasshoppers  are  wingless  and  are  known  by  the  fact  that 
the  pronotum,  or  shield  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body  just 
back  of  the  head,  extends  well  back  over  the  thorax  and 
the  base  of  the  abdomen,  like  a  cloak  thrown  over  the 
shoulders.  The  cricket-like  grasshoppers  are  to  be  looked 
for  around  old  well  curbs  or  stone  piles,  in  damp,  dark 


ORTHOPTERA.  9! 

places  generally.  The  body  is  shining  dark  brown,  thick, 
and  arched  upward  in  the  thorax  and  front  abdomen, 
while  the  head  is  curved  downward  between  the  front  legs. 
The  antennae  are  long  and  thread-like,  and  are  usually 
carried  backward  over  the  body,  when  not  in  use  to  ac- 
quaint the  insect  with  its  surroundings.  (Fig.  38.)  Their 
haunts  are  not  such  as  to  give  one  an  idea  of  the  food 
habits;  but  as  they  seem  to  be  nocturnal  in  their  habits 
the  indications  are  that  they  eat  both  animal  and  vegetable 
food.  The  katydids  of  the  lowland  regions  and  the  plains 


a* 

FIG.  38. — A  cricket-like  grasshopper,  Anabrus  simplex.     (Howard,  after  Riley.} 

are  green-bodied,  green-winged  Locustidae.  They  are 
nocturnal  and  are  hard  to  find;  a  pair  of  sharp  eyes 
searching  around  vines  or  trees  or  bushes  late  in  the  after- 
noon of  a  summer  day  will  possibly  be  able  to  find  them. 
Some  of  them  have  wing-covers  so  closely  resembling 
leaves  both  in  form  and  color,  and  even  venation,  that 
seeing  is  oftentimes  not  believing.  This  is  one  of  the  cases 
of  protective  resemblance,  the  protection  sought  being 
from  birds.  The  scheme  does  not  always  work,  however; 
one  could  not  spend  a  single  afternoon  among  the  feath- 
ered tribe  and  the  insect  folk  without  discovering  this 
fact.  But  it  is  only  natural  to  suppose  that  birds  have 
not  been  napping  in  the  midst  of  the  schemes  of  their 
insect  neighbors,  but  have  pitted  their  own  sharpened 
wits  against  the  various  devices  employed  against  them. 


92 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


Another  case  of  protective  coloring  is  found  among  the 
tree  crickets,  delicate,  pale-green,  shadowy  insects  to  be 
found  in  among  the  foliage  of  vines,  shrubs,  or  trees.  The 
male  tree  cricket  has  a  way  of  closing  his  wings  flat  on 
his  back,  so  that  they  extend  out  some  distance  from  the 
side  of  his  body  and  make  him  look  larger  than  he  really 
is ;  while  the  female  folds  her  wings  downward  around  the 
body.  Both  are  leaf  eaters,  and  if  they  were  more 
abundant  or  had  fewer  enemies,  they  would  be  quite 
injurious  to  vegetation.  A  tree  or  a  shrub  denuded  of  its 
leaves  is  unable  to  ripen  its  fruit  for  any  given  season,  or 
to  make  its  buds  for  the  next  season. 

Scudder  mentions  finding  grayish  katydids  in  mount- 
ainous regions,  and  says  that  their  quiet  colors  were 
quite  as  effective  against  the  granite  rocks  as  is  the  green 
of  our  katydids  among  growing  vegetation. 

The  three  families  of  Orthoptera  that  do  not  sing 
nor  walk,  and  run  instead  of  leaping  are  the  cockroaches, 
the  praying  mantids,  and  the  walking  sticks.  The 
cockroaches  are  among  our  oldest  insects.  More  than 
two  hundred  different  kinds  have  been  found  preserved 
in  the  carboniferous  rocks  of  North  America  and  Europe. 
They  could  hardly  have  been  scavengers  in  those  days, 
as  there  were  no  kitchens  nor  restaurants  for  them  to 
ransack  then.  They  were  probably  plant-eaters,  as  our 
native  roaches  are  to-day;  or  they  may  have  been  preda- 
tory creatures;  roaches  indoors  nowadays  will  often 
devour  bedbugs. 

Many  of  the  roaches  at  present  found  in  the  United 
States  were  imported  from  Europe,  brought  over  in  the 
holds  of  ships,  and,  coming  ashore  with  baggage  or  with 
the  luggage  of  immigrants,  are  given  access  to  many 
buildings,  warehouses,  and  homes  where  a  comfortable 


ORTHOPTERA. 


93 


living  awaits  them.  These  insects  are  indoor  dwellers, 
purely  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  haunting  store-rooms, 
pantries,  and  sinks  after  night  comes.  The  light  brown, 
rather  small  roach,  brought  over  from  Germany  to  New 
York,  received  the  name  of  Croton  bug  from  its  insistent 
connection  with  the  city  water  system.  (Fig.  39.)  These 
introduced  roaches  have  spread  rapidly,  probably  at  first 


FIG.  39.  FIG.  40. 

FIG.  39. — The  croton  bug,  or  German  cockroach,  Ectobia  germanica. 
(Twice  natural  size.)  (Kellogg.} 

FIG.  40. — The  oriental  cockroach,  Periplaneta  orientatis.  (One  and  one- 
half  natural  size.)  (Kellogg.} 

largely  following  the  main  travel  lines  across  the  country, 
until  they  now  breed  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco. 
The  oriental  roach,  brought  in  by  way  of  the  Asiatic 
steamers,  has  been  spreading  eastward.  (Fig.  40.)  The 
last-named  roach  is  about  one  inch  long,  with  a  brownish- 
black  body.  The  wings  of  the  male  are  not  quite  so  long 
as  the  abdomen,  leaving  about  the  last  two  segments 
exposed.  The  native  roach  most  like  the  oriental  roach 
is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  much  lighter  in  color, 
and  the  wings  completely  cover  the  abdomen.  This  roach 


94 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


came  northward  into  the  States  from  Mexico.  Aside  from 
this  species,  our  other  native  roaches  live  around  wood 
piles  or  under  the  bark  of  trees  or  old  stumps,  or  other 
out-of-door  convenient  hiding-places,  from  which  to  set 
out  on  their  foraging  trips.  (Fig.  41.) 

The  mouth-parts  of  the  roaches  are  fitted  for.  masti- 
cating dry,  hard  substances.  The  jaws  are  strong  and 

toothed,  and  the  insect  appreciates 
especially  hard  bread  or  crackers, 
or  dried  bits  of  the  lunch  that  you 
did  not  eat  up.  Failing  these 
things,  he  will  be  quite  happy  to 
regale  himself  on  the  leather  bind- 
ing of  your  Shakespeare,  or  your 
winter  coat,  wall  paper,  or  the 
paste  of  book  bindings  if  he  can 
get  into  your  bookcase. 

The    cockroach   body  is   flat- 
^^         d  ^     ^   ^ 

.  ,  +*•£.• 

natural  size  indicated  by  a  line.}  legs  are  adapted  for  swift  running, 

altogether  making    it    an   insect 

hard  to  catch.  If  you  have  not  tried  catching  one,  test 
the  truth  of  the  statement.  The  insect  has  no  trouble  in 
concealing  itself  in  a  crack  or  a  crevice.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  small  cases  which  are  carried  about  by  the  mother 
until  the  young  are  ready  to  hatch.  The  young,  as  soon 
as  they  are  hatched,  begin  to  run  about  and  take  care  of 
themselves;  but  they  grow  slowly,  taking  nearly  a  year  to 
acquire  adult  size. 

The  praying  mantids  are  long,  slender-bodied  insects, 
with  the  curious  habit  of  raising  their  large  front  legs  up 
in  front  of  their  faces  while  they  stare  about  them,  meek 
and  motionless  of  aspect.  In  fact  they  are  watching  for 


FIG.  41.—  Common  native 
cockroach  .Ischnopter  pennsyl- 
vamca.  (Kellogg,  after  Lugger; 


ORTHOPTERA. 


95 


an  insect,  but  they  look  far  from  carnivorous,  as  they 

stand  on  the  edge  of  your  book  and  look  solemnly  at  you. 

A  female  of  one  of  these  mantids  was  recently  kept  in 

the  laboratory  by  the  writer,  for  more  than  four  weeks. 

It  was  allowed  the  run  of  a  bunch  of  golden-rod,  and  it 

seldom  sought  to  leave  its  quarters.     It  was  fed  flies, 

occasionally  catching  one  on  its  own 

account.    It  liked  small  grasshoppers 

and  the  caterpillars  known  as  woolly 

bears,  but  it  especially  delighted  in 

green  cabbage  worms,  and  would  eat 

several   of  these   "at  one   sitting." 

But  one  day,  one  of  these  worms,  in 

twisting  and  writhing  to  get  out  of 

the  clutches  of  its  murderer,  bit  the 

mantis  on  the  softer  part  of  the  leg, 

and  thereafter  the  mantis  would  fight 

shy  of  a  green  caterpillar  unless  its 

head  had  first  been  crushed. 

The  adult  males  of  the  mantis 
family  are  slender-bodied  and  usually  FlG-  4*.-A  praying  mantis 
grayish  in  color,  while  the  females 

have  much  broader  abdomens,  and  often  variegated 
wing-covers.  All  the  mantids  are  useful  insects  and 
should  be  carefully  let  alone  and  not  injured.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  late  summer  or  September,  usually,  and  hatch 
out  the  following  spring.  Their  life  habits  may  be  much 
more  profitably  studied  from  the  living  specimens,  as  they 
readily  yield  to  kindly  treatment,  being  quite  willing  to 
take  food  from  the  hand,  when  it  is  offered. 

The  walking  sticks,  as  their  name  indicates,  are 
curious  stick-like  insects,  wingless  and  slow-moving; 
and  their  resemblance  to  the  twigs  on  which  they  may 


96 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


be  resting  while  feeding  is  one  of  the  most  effective  cases 
of  protective  coloration  and  mimicry  of  form.  These 
insects,  as  might  be  suspected,  are  tree-dwellers,  living 
also  on  bushes  or  other  vegetation,  and  keeping  as  close 


FIG.  43,—Diapheromcra  veliei,  on  a  twig.     Natural  size.     (Folsom.) 

as  possible  to  the  twigs  of  the  plant.  The  species  gener- 
ally found  is  brown  and  very  slender-bodied;  but  occa- 
sionally there  is  found  a  green  species  with  a  slightly 
stouter  body.  And  whenever  one  is  fortunate  enough 
to  discover  the  brown  species  on  the  twig,  or  the  green 


ORTHOPTERA.  97 

sort  on  the  foliage,  he  will  surely  acknowledge  that  the 
walking  sticks  are  able  to  cover  their  tracks  quite  effect- 
ively from  both  naturalist  and  bird. 

Bird  enemies  of  some  of  the  orthopters : 

Grasshoppers. 

Quails  Night  hawks 

Prairie  chickens  Bluebirds 

Crows  Barn  swallows 

Domestic  fowls  (ducks,  Yellow-billed  cuckoos 

geese,  and  chickens) 
Wild  geese  and  wild  ducks  Screech  owls 

Red- winged  blackbirds  Blue  jays 

Kingbirds  House  wrens 

Sparrow  hawks  Brown  thrashers 
Butcher  birds 

Crickets. 

Bluebirds  Shrikes  or  butcher  birds 

Robins  The  sparrow  family 

Towhees  Kingbirds 

Katydids. 

Robins  Domestic  fowls 

Shrikes 


CHAPTER  IX. 
FIELD  WORK  ON  HEMIPTERA. 

Of  the  true  bugs,  ten  families  are  aquatic ;  hence  the 
same  pond  that  furnishes  material  for  the  study  of  beetles, 
may  furnish  many  sorts  of  these  insects  with  sucking 
beaks. 

To  learn  what  this  beak  looks  like,  catch  a  squash  bug 
or  a  cicada,  and  while  you  hold  between  thumb  and  fore- 
finger either  one  you  may  have  caught,  look  on  the  under 
side  of  the  head,  perhaps  turning  the  insect  so  that  you 
can  see  the  head  sidewise.  Folded  back  against  the  thorax, 
between  the  front  legs,  will  be  found  the  sharp-pointed 
beak.  When  in  use,  it  is  held  at  a  right  angle  with  the 
body.  Some  of  the  predaceous  members  of  the  order  hold 
the  beak  "in  action"  straight  in  front  of  the  head. 

On  the  surface  of  the  pond,  or  in  quiet  pools  of  the 
river,  one  may  see  long-legged  insects  darting  across  the 
water,  preferring  to  escape  from  danger  by  more  rapid 
skating  than  by  diving.  These  are  the  water  striders; 
and  if  you  expect  to  catch  them  with  your  dip  net,  you  will 
have  to  make  some  shrewd  guesses  as  to  where  the  insect 
is  likely  to  be  after  your  net  strikes  the  water.  Watch 
them  first  to  see  if  you  can  discover  what  they  are  doing 
as  they  stride  about  over  the  water.  Their  front  legs  are 
strong  and  could  well  do  for  hands  if  the  insects  needed 
organs  for  grasping. 

In  company  with  the  water  striders,  but  stirring  up 
considerably  more  commotion  in  the  water,  like  some  tiny 

98 


FIELD    WORK    ON  HEMIPTERA.  99 

side-wheeler  alongside  a  big,  steady,  ocean-going  steamer, 
are  the  back  swimmers,  performing  such  feats  as  you  and 
I  would  have  reason  to  be  proud  of,  if  we  could  do  them, 
always  swimming  back  downward,  the  hind  legs  directed 
forward,  and  so  formed  as  to  serve  as  oars.  These  are 
blue-gray  and  white  insects,  and  they  lash  the  water 
smartly  as  they  dart  here  and  there  in  search  of  food.  If 
you  can  capture  one,  put  it  into  your  pail,  which  should 
be  at  least  half  full  of  the  pond  water;  and  you  will  see, 
especially  if  you  have  brought  along  the  reading  glass,  that 
the  rear  end  of  the  body  of  each  of  these  back  swimmers 
is  tilted  slightly  upward,  so  that  the  wing  margins  are 
slightly  above  the  water  line.  The  back  swimmers  are  air- 
breathing  insects,  and  they  store  their  air  supply  between 
the  abdomen  and  the  wing-covers. 

If  you  stoop  on  your  hands  and  knees,  or  lie  down  so 
that  you  can  look  into  the  depths  of  the  pond — and  do  it 
quietly — there  may  be  found  other  insects  clinging  to  the 
grass  stems  or  other  objects  under  the  water;  these  may 
at  first  sight  look  very  much  like  the  back  swimmers,  but 
these  insects  prefer  to  stay  below  the  water  surface,  while 
the  back  swimmers  come  below  only  when  something  dis- 
turbs them  above.  The  grass  stems  may  be  swept  with 
your  dip  net  for  some  of  these  insects,  and  when  you  have 
one  of  them  in  hand,  if  it  has  the  characteristic  beak,  it  is 
presumably  a  water  boatman.  This  new  insect  should 
be  flat  on  the  back,  instead  of  keel-shaped  as  the  back 
swimmers  are.  You  may  also  find,  crawling  about  over 
the  pond  mud,  a  big  brown  insect  about  two  inches  or 
more  long.  Its  two  front  legs  are  held  elbowed,  seeking 
what  they  may  grasp.  Send  down  your  dip  net  or  the 
dipper  and  get  one  of  these  insects;  and  when  you  have 
him  look  for  the  long  beak  "laid  away"  between  the  front 


100  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

legs.  If  you  find  the  beak,  turn  the  insect  over  on  its 
face  to  discover  whether  the  wings  have  an  opaque  and 
a  transparent  portion.  If  both  facts  are  true,  you  may  be 
sure  that  you  have  another  bug;  and  this  sort  is  what  is 
called  the  giant  water  bug.  Having  captured  and  studied 
these  bugs,  empty  your  pail  back  into  the  pond ;  you  have 
all  the  requisite  knowledge  of  them,  and  they  are  useful 
and  must  be  left  to  do  their  life  work  by  living  out  their 


FIG.  44. — Giant  water  bug.  Benacus  griseus.     Slightly  reduced.     (Folsom.} 

alloted  days,  and  thus  fulfilling  their  mission.  You  have 
the  really  valuable  knowledge  when  you  have  found  that 
they  are  valuable  by  discovering  what  they  are  eating; 
if  you  want  to  know  their  real  names,  they  can  be  brought 
home  in  the  pail  and  kept  in  water  renewed  at  least  every 
day,  with  flies  occasionally  fed  to  them,  while  you  are 
studying  their  structure  and  make-up  carefully  enough  to 
recognize  their  accurate  description  in  some  one  of  the 
insect  manuals.  All  three  of  these  insects  have  good' 


FIELD    WORK    ON  HEMIPTERA.  IOI 

flight  wings  under  their  wing-covers,  and  can  fly  readily. 
Later  on  you  may  meet  the  giant  water  bugs  elsewhere. 

(Fig-  44-) 

A  very  profitable  hunting  ground  when  seeking  land 
bugs  is  the  garden  patch;  cabbage,  squash,  melon,  or 
cucumber  will  be  sure  to  furnish  some  of  the  leaf -eating 
hemipters.  The  reading  glass  may  be  used  to  see  how 
the  squash  bugs  and  the  calico  backs  are  eating.  Along 
with  the  cabbage  worms  you  may  find  their  enemies, 
sharp-beaked,  prettily  colored  bugs,  carrying  their 
beaks  in  front  of  the  head  and  thrusting  it  into  the  pro- 
testing green  victim  from  this  position.  After  the  beak 
is  once  in,  protesting  does  no  good  on  the  part  of  the 
worm;  it  is  done  for. 

Some  clear  night  take  your  net  and  the  small  collect- 
ing boxes  to  some  electric  light.  It  will  be  a  good  idea 
to  have  some  tall  friend  go  with  you  or  to  take  along 
something  to  stand  on.  Be  careful  not  to  injure  the 
specimens  caught  in  the  net.  There  may  be  some  valu- 
able insects  in  the  dancing  swarm  about  the  light.  If 
it  is  a  cold  night,  it  is  of  little  use  to  go.  Watch  the 
insects  for  a  few  minutes  to  see  what  you  are  likely  to 
have  in  your  net,  and  also  to  see  how  they  behave.  Test 
yourselves  to  see  if  you  can  distinguish  members  of  any  of 
the  orders  with  which  you  have  grown  familiar;  and 
whether  you  are  able  to  determine  how  far  some  of  them 
have  been  attracted  by  the  light.  Possibly  the  latter 
fact  will  not  come  out  until  you  have  your  finds  at  closer 
range. 

By  dextrously  sweeping  the  net  through  the  air,  and 
carefully  separating  into  the  collection  boxes,  many 
insects  may  be  taken  home  for  examination  immediately, 
if  one  has  a  good  light ;  or  may  be  kept  for  daylight  study. 


102  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

With  the  help  of  your  instructor,  and  aided  by  good 
insect  manuals,  many  of  the  insects  found  may  be  named. 
At  least,  you  will  be  able  to  determine  by  the  mouth  parts 
what  different  sorts  of  insects  are  attracted  by  the  light 
and  fly  toward  it.  Light  has  curious  effects  upon  different 
animals;  some  are  attracted;  some  are  repelled.  As 
between  diffused  light  and  a  single  point,  some  insects 
will  be  drawn  toward  the  diffused  light,  while  they  are 
unaffected  by  the  single  point.  How  is  it  with  these 
insects?  How  is  it  with  yourself? 

The  corn  or  the  wheat  field,  the  region  of  the  taller 
forage  grasses,  or  sometimes  the  'blue  grass  of  the  lawn 
may  yield,  close  down  to  the  roots  or  up  a  ways  on  the 
stem,  numerous  specimens  of  chinch  bugs.  Can  you 
discover  the  adults?  Dig  down  among  the  roots;  can 
you  discover  them  here?  What  is  this  stage  you  find 
under  the  surface  of  the  ground?  On  what  are  they 
feeding?  Can  you  find  the  beak?  You  may  possibly 
discover  short- winged  and  long- winged  species,  or  all  the 
individuals  in  a  given  area  may  have  short  wings.  When 
disturbed  do  the  insects  fly  or  crawl?  Have  you  seen 
them  migrating?  Catch  and  kill  as  many  as  possible. 

In  early  midsummer,  whenever  that  arrives  for 
your  locality,  be  on  the  watch  for  cicadas.  The  first 
cicada  song  should  be  the  signal  for  the  hunt.  A  hundred 
chances  to  one  the  singer  will  be  "up  a  tree,"  and  you  will 
not  be  able  to  go  after  it.  Be  patient;  the  cicadas  spend 
the  immature  stage  below  the  ground  surface;  so  in  the 
orchard,  or  on  the  lawn,  along  the  fences  or  hedge  rows, 
where  trees  grow,  watch  the  ground  and  you  will  probably 
be  rewarded  by  finding  a  cicada  moulting  for  the  last 
time.  In  this  condition  the  insect  may  easily  be  caught. 
You  may  discover  some  of  the  grayish,  lumbering  nymphs 


FIELD    WORK    ON  HEMIPTERA. 


103 


lagging  across  the  sidewalk;  and  whenever  you  find  one 
do  not  hesitate  to  catch  it.  After  examining  it,  it  is  to  be 
consigned  to  the  killing  bottle — a  pest  well  gotten  rid  of. 
(Fig.  45.)  When  you  seize  the  insect  by  its  broad  back, 
do  not  be  frightened  by  the  furious  noise  that  it  makes — 
it  is  only  noise,  and  not  at  all  dangerous.  Can  you  dis- 
cover the  "musical  apparatus"  on  the  under  side  of 


FIG.  45. — Development  of  a  cicada.     Cicada  tibicen.     A,  imago  emerging  from 
nymphal  skin;  B,  the  cast  skin;  C,  imago.     Natural  size.     (Folsom.) 


the  body?  Are  the  wings  half  opaque  or  wholly  mem- 
branous? Can  you  discover  the  beak?  How  does  the 
cicada  carry  the  beak?  Are  you  able  to  find  one  of  the 
insects  feeding? 

If  in  some  green-house,  or  elsewhere,  there  are  plants 
that  are  troubled  with  scale  insects,  an  expedition  may 
profitably  be  made  to  see  the  insects,  or  a  branch  of  the 
plant  afflicted  may  be  secured  for  study.  Examine  the 
scale  as  it  lies  on  the  stem.  Has  it  any  means  of  defense? 


104  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

With  a  pin  or  a  toothpick  turn  one  of  the  scales  over 
on  to  a  glass  slide  and  put  it  under  the  low  power  of  the 
microscope,  in  good  light  from  above.  Has  the  insect 
any  legs?  Can  you  find  the  sucking  beak?  How  was  the 
insect  fastened  to  the  leaf?  Are  the  young  insects 
hatching  from  the  eggs?  If  so,  can  you  discover  their 
eyes  and  legs? 

There  are  many  hemipters  which  may  well  be  claimed 
for  the  insect  cabinet.  When  such  harmful  hemipters  are 
taken  from  the  killing  bottle  the  pin  should  be  thrust 
through  the  thorax.  A  very  valuable  mount  may  be 
made  from  some  group  or  family  of  bugs,  where  big  bugs, 
little  bugs,  and  middle-sized  bugs  are  found  feeding  to- 
gether. Pin  them  in  a  row,  beginning  with  the  smallest 
of  the  lot,  and  increasing  toward  the  last  pin,  which 
should  hold  the  adult  insect,  and  may  also  bear  the  ticket. 


HEMIPTERA. 
CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  Body  usually  softer  than  the  beetles'. 

2.  Wings,  four,  but  the  front  pair  usually  thin  and  soft, 
and  opaque  only  part  way  to  the  tip. 

3.  Wings  overlapping  on  the  back. 

4.  Mouth  parts  prolonged  into  a  sucking  beak  which 
projects  from  the  front  ef  the  head  or  is  folded  back 
on  the  breast  under  the  body. 

5.  Wings  absent  in  some  sorts,  but  the  mouth  parts 

are  still  modified  into  the  beak. 


I05 


HEMIPTERA. 

These  insects,  along  with  the  beetles,  and,  for  that 
matter,  nearly  all  the  other  insects  except  the  butterflies 
and  the  moths,  are  called  bugs,  and  these,  alone,  of  all 
of  them,  are  entitled  to  the  name.  The  name  of  the  order 
has  reference  to  the  peculiar  make-up  of  the  front  wings. 
In  the  true  hemipters,  these  have  the  base  of  the  wing- 
covers  thickened  so  as  to  be  nearly  opaque;  while  the  hind 
wings  are  clear  and  transparent,  or  nearly  so.  (Fig.  46.) 


FIG.  46. — Front  wing  of  an  hemipter. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  bugs,  using  the  word  in  its 
true  signification,  and  not  including  beetles,  wasps,  flies, 
or  ants,  nor  any  others  of  the  insect  kind,  which  we  so 
frequently  mean  when  we  say  "bugs." 

The  order  may  be  divided  into:  (i)  Parasitic,  wing- 
less forms  with  unsegmented  sucking  beak.  Examples 
of  these  hemipters  are  the  lice  of  the  dog,  horse,  cattle, 
hog,  or  sheep  kinds,  and  also  the  human  louse.  (2)  Winged 
or  wingless  forms  with  the  beak  segmented ;  wings,  when 
present,  of  the  same  texture  throughout.  Here  are  found 
the  cicadas,  the  plant  lice  and  scale  insects,  mealy  bugs, 
leaf  hoppers,  and  gall-forming  aphids.  (3)  Winged  insects 

107 


io8 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


with  the  basal  half  of  the  front  wings  thickened,  all  four 
wings  lying  on  the  back  when  not  in  use,  with  their  tips 
overlapping;  the  sucking  beak  arises  from  the  front  of  the 
head,  and  the  body  shows  a  more  or  less  distinct  neck. 
The  last  division  is  the  division  of  the  true  bugs,  that  is, 


FIG.  47. — Mouth  parts  of  an  hemipteron,  Benacus  griseus.  A,  dorsal  aspect 
B,  transverse  section;  C,  extremity  of  mandible;  D,  transverse  section  of  man- 
dibles and  maxillae;  c,  canal;  /,  labrum;  li,  labium;  m,  mandible;  mx,  maxillae. 
(Folsom.) 

the  bugs  having  the  characteristics  which  distinguish  the 
order  from  all  the  other  orders  of  insects. 

The  insects  of  this  order  differ  from  both  the  beetles 
and  the  orthopters  in  the  manner  of  getting  their  food. 
All  of  them  suck  the  life  fluids  of  either  plants  or  animals. 


HEMIPTERA.  IOQ 

The  mandibles  and  the  maxillae  are  formed  into  an  effect- 
ive piercing  and  sucking  organ  called  the  beak;  and  this 
is  enclosed  by  the  labium,  which  is  in  this  order  formed  of 
two  pieces,  grooved  on  their  inner  edges,  and  fitting  to- 
gether around  the  stylets  so  as  to  form  a  tube  or  suction 
pump,  by  which  the  sap  of  the  plant  or  the  blood  of  the 
animal  is  pumped  into  the  greedy  maw  of  the  blood-thirsty 
bug.  (Fig.  47.)  One  predatory  member  of  the  order  is 
fond  of  the  green  cabbage  worm,  and  may  be  watched 
while  it  energetically  pumps  away  the  life  blood  of  the 
unlucky  worm,  working  the  sharp  stylets  up  and  down 
inside  the  hole  made  by  the  labium. 

Unlike  the  beetles,  the  hemipters  pass  through  no 
pronounced  changes  on  the  way  to  adult  size.  Except  the 
males  of  the  scale  insects,  all  of  the  order  have  incomplete 
metamorphosis,  passing  through  the  egg  and  the  extended 
larval  stage,  which  merges  into  the  adult  form  by  means 
of  repeated  moultings  while  the  insect  is  eating  and  grow- 
ing. Trie  insect  just  hatched  from  the  egg  is  a  tiny  bug, 
resembling  its  parents  in  form  and  food  habits;  but  it 
has  no  wings,  and  its  colors  are  often  different  from  the 
adult  colors. 

Having  the  same  sort  of  mouth  parts,  the  young  bugs 
have  the  same  food  preferences  as  do  the  adults,  and  hence 
the  young  are  to  be  sought  in  the  same  places  as  the  adults. 
The  egg-laying  process  usually  occupies  some  days ;  hence 
in  any  brood  are  to  be  found  young  bugs  in  many  stages 
of  development;  from  those  just  hatched,  tiny,  wingless 
individuals,  to  the  winged  adult,  all  sucking  away  at  the 
pumpkin  or  cabbage  leaf.  Usually  the  predatory  insect 
insists  upon  the  right  of  discovery,  and  preempts  its 
victim  to  the  exclusion  of  other  insects — -a 'useful  habit, 
as  it  rids  us  of  many  more  injurious  insects. 


IIO  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

The  first  division  of  the  Hemiptera  is  the  division  of 
the  disgusting  parasites  of  many  of  the  lower  animals  and 
also  of  man.  These  are  all  wingless  insects  having  only 
small  locomotor  powers  and  living  the  whole  life  round, 
from  the  eggs  to  the  adult,  on  the  body  of  the  host.  The 
mouth  parts  are  all  modified  to  form  a  fleshy,  sucking 
beak;  the  feet  have  only  one  claw,  and  this  is  usually 
bent  at  an  angle  which  enables  the  pest  to  cling  to  the  hair, 
wool,  or  clothing  of  the  host.  The  eggs  are  usually  glued 
to  the  hair  or  wool  of  the  host,  or  deposited  in  creases  of 
the  clothing. 

In  the  second  division  of  the  Hemiptera,  come  the 
scale  insects,  the  pests  of  nurserymen  and  florists.  The 
male,  where  this  form  is  produced,  is  a  winged  indi- 
vidual; while  the  female  possesses  no  wings,  and  during 
the  greater  part  of  her  life,  in  most  of  the  species,  has 
no  feet.  These  insects  have  remarkable  powers  for  pro- 
ducing young,  several  broods  being  raised  in  a  year,  even 
by  the  outdoor  sorts,  while  the  indoor,  green-house  pests 
breed  practically  all  the  year  round,  taking  advantage  of 
the  artificial  culture  which  man  unwillingly  gives  them. 
Various  measures,  such  as  fumigating  and  spraying,  are 
used  against  them  with  varying  degrees  of  success. 
Their  most  effective  enemies  are  the  ladybird  beetles, 
mentioned  in  a  previous  order.  These  ladybirds  are 
easily  caught,  and,  their  safety  being  a  matter  of  so  much 
moment  to  an  agricultural  community,  the  killing  of  them 
should  be  prevented  by  all  means.  So  far  as  their  bird 
enemies  are  concerned,  the  ladybirds  have  a  fairly  good 
weapon  of  defense  in  their  secretion  of  a  fluid  which 
renders  them  very  disagreeable  in  taste;  they  can  afford 
to  be  so  brightly  colored  because  they  taste  so  bad. 

There   is   no   defensive   measure   against   the   scale 


HEMIPTERA.  Ill 

insects  which  should  be  neglected,  the  rapidity  with 
which  they  breed,  and  the  difficulty  of  killing  all  the 
individuals  of  any  one  brood,  making  them  exceedingly 
hard  to  get  rid  of.  The  females  of  many  of  the  scale 
insects  in  the  adult  stage  secrete  about  themselves  an 
impervious  shell  of  waxy  scales  or  a  covering  made  of 
the  juice  of  the  wounded  plant  whose  stems  are  furnishing 
them  with  food.  These  coverings  increase  the  difficulty 
of  treatment  at  this  stage. 

For  infested  plants  in  the  green-house,  or  even  for 
trees  in  the  nursery,  fumigation  with  hydrocyanic  acid 
is  recommended  by  those  who  have  tried  it.  It  certainly 
kills  all  individuals  that  have  hatched  from  the  egg. 
In  the  fumigation,  a  cloth  covering  large  enough  to 
envelop  the  plant  or  the  tree  is  necessary.  The  fumigant 
is  made  by  pouring  water  into  commercial  sulphuric  acid 
and  adding  cyanid  of  potassium;  the  three  substances 
to  be  in  the  proportion  of  ten  ounces  of  the  water  to  one 
ounce  of  the  sulphuric  acid  to  three  ounces  of  potassium 
cyanid,  made  up  in  the  quantity  required,  the  amount 
given  being  sufficient  to  fumigate  one  hundred  cubic  feet 
of  space.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  usually 
made  up  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  ten,  if  it  can  be 
bought, 'is  better  to  use  than  to  attempt  the  making  of 
the  mixture  one's  self.  There  is  always  a  little  danger 
attending  the  rapid  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water. 
If  you  make  the  mixture,  take  the  precaution  to  pour 
the  water  in  slowly.  The  fumes  of  the  mixture  acting 
on  the  cyanid  of  potassium  are  deadly  poison;  hence 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  breathe  them ;  they  are  intended 
only  for  the  scale  insects!  Have  all  other  things  in  place 
before  you  pour  the  mixture  on  the  potassium  cyanid. 

The  division  of  the  true  bugs,  or  the  Heteroptera, 


II2  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

as  they  are  called,  includes  twenty-six  families,  ten  of 
.which  are  aquatic  in  their  life  habits.  Hence  in  any 
pool  in  the  river  or  in  the  ponds,  in  the  warm  spring  days, 
the  observer  will  find  large  numbers  of  these  true  bugs, 
whose  feeding  habits  should  be  studied  while  they  are 
darting  about  the  pond  in  the  activities  characteristic 
of  their  kind.  The  shore  insects  do  some  good  as  scaven- 
gers by  eating  drowned  insects  along  the  shore  line  of 
bodies  of  fresh  and  salt  water.  The  water  striders  and  the 
water  boatmen  are  to  be  found  in  the  ponds  or  pools, 
also  the  giant  waterbug,  the  electric-light  bug,  so  called 
because  it  may  so  often  be  found  flying  about  the  electric 
lights  at  night.  Most  of  its  life  is  spent  in  the  water; 
it  is  only  the  adult  insect  which  comes  out  into  the  air 
occasionally,  and  these  expeditions  seem  to  be  made  for 
the  purposes  of  food-getting  and  seeking  another  pond, 
there  to  lay  its  eggs  and  thus  distribute  its  kind.  This 
insect  is  fiercely  predaceous,  and  often  does  serious 
harm  to  animals  much  larger  than  itself,  such  as  carp 
and  gold-fish. 

Here,  also,  may  be  found  the  water  scorpions,  dirty 
stick-like  bugs,  rather  sluggish  in  their  habits.  They 
have  a  long  respiratory  tube  which  they  lift  up  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  as  they  lie  in  some  shallow  pool,  and 
through  which  they  take  in  a  new  supply  of  air.  Hence 
they  are  really  air-breathing  insects,  although  they 
spend  their  life  in  the  water.  This  is  true  of  many  of  the 
aquatic  bugs,  and  some  of  them  are  terrestrial  in  the 
adult  stage.  The  back-swimmers,  the  toad  bugs,  the 
marsh  treaders,  and  the  shore  bugs,  all  belong  here,  and 
they  all  have  a  slender  piercing  and  sucking  beak.  The 
food  of  most  of  the  aquatic  hemipters  consists  of  other 
forms  of  aquatic  life,  and  if  the  insects  thus  serving  as 


HEMIPTERA.  113 

food  are  injurious,  these  bugs  are  to  be  reckoned  among 
the  beneficial  hemipters.  Many  of  them  eat  stems  and 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 

Five  of  the  sixteen  terrestrial  heteropterous  families 
are  predaceous,  hence  beneficial  to  man.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  the  assassin  bug,  the  soldier  bug, 
the  damsel  bug,  the  thread-legged  bug,  and  the  flower 
bug ;  two  species  of  the  last-named  feed 
upon  the  chinch  bug.  All  the  remain- 
ing eleven  families  of  the  order  feed 
upon  plant  juices,  hence  these  are  the 
reprobate  bugs  which  give  a  bad  name 
to  the  whole  order,  in  the  minds  of 
many  people.  Here  among  these  eleven 
families  are  to  be  found  the  squash  bug, 
the  chinch  bug,  the  leaf  bugs,  the  stink  -r 

bugs,  the  shield-backed  bugs,  and  the  FlG.  48._Short- winged 
negro  bugs — these  latter  are  very  small  chinch  bug,  Blissus  leu- 
and  very  black  bugs  to  be  found  on  copterus.  (Howard,  after 
raspberry  bushes  and  other  fruits, 
which  they  spoil  for  market  by  imparting  a  very  disa- 
greeable odor  to  them. 

The  chinch  bug,  that  notorious  pest  of  the  farmers  of 
the  land,  is  one  of  these  harmful  hemipters.  This  insect 
and  the  hessian  fly  do,  perhaps,  more  damage  to  growing 
crops  than  any  other  half  dozen  insects  known.  (Fig.  48.) 
Like  all  other  hemipters,  it  has  an  effective  sucking  beak, 
and  its  larval  period  is  largely  spent  just  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  where  it  feeds  upon  the  roots  of  the 
plant  whose  leaves  are  to  feed  it  later. 

The  first  mention  of  the  chinch  bug  dates  from  North 
Carolina  in  1785.  To-day  it  is  distributed  over  southern 
Africa,  and  from  Europe  to  the  sandy  plains  of  Hungary. 


114  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

On  the  western  continent  it  has  the  run  of  the  two 
Americas  from  Panama  to  middle  California  on  the  western 
coast,  and  from  Panama  to  about  the  latitude  of  Cape 
Breton  on  the  east.  Inland  it  has  spread  over  a  region 
from  Texas  to  Manitoba.  The  states  suffering  worst  from 
its  ravages  are  Wisconsin,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Indiana,  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia. 
According  to  accounts,  it  fed  on  native  grasses  originally, 
and  often  now  uses  them  as  a  breeding  host,  migrating 
to  cereal  plants  later.  Of  the  cultivated  crops  upon 
which  it  feeds,  it  seems  to  prefer  wheat  and  corn,  millet, 
sorghum  and  broom  corn;  feeding  also  upon f  timothy, 
Bermuda  grass,  blue  grass,  crab  grass,  and,  in  the  South, 
upon  rice. 

The  eggs  are  laid  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
on  the  roots  of  grasses  or  grains.  Howard  reports  eggs 
as  having  been  found  in  the  sheath  of  grass  stems.  The 
egg-laying  occupies  a  period  of  ten  days  to  three  weeks; 
and  the  eggs  hatch  in  an  average  time  of  two  weeks. 
The  adults  reach  maturity  in  from  fifty-seven  to  sixty  days 
from  the  time  of  hatching.  The  young  larva  or  nymph 
is  at  first  yellow,  with  an  orange  spot  on  the  middle  of 
the  abdomen.  After  the  first  moult  it  turns  a  bright 
vermilion  except  the  two  segments  at  the  base  of  the 
abdomen,  which  remain  yellow.  After  the  second  moult 
the  vermilion  gradually  gives  place  to  the  adult  colors, 
dusky  gray  and  black;  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  wing 
pads  increase  in  size.  The  adult  has  a  rather  oblong, 
somewhat  hairy  body;  the  elytra  are  white  with  a  blackish 
spot  on  the  side,  midway  of  each  elytron. 

Its  most  important  natural  enemies  among  the  insects 
are  the  soldier  bug,  the  insidious  flower  bug,  one  of  the 
ground  beetles,  lace- winged  flies,  and  also  spiders.  Among 


HEMIPTERA.  115 

birds  it  has  quite  a  number  of  enemies — red- winged  black- 
birds, brown  thrashers,  house  wrens,  prairie  chickens, 
meadow  larks,  and  quails.  Of  all  these,  the  quail  is  the 
most  important  enemy.  The  quail  is  protected  by  law; 
but  there  is  no  good  and  sufficient  reason  why  this  bird 
should  be  killed  in  the  so-called  legal  season.  North  of 
Lat.  38°  N.  the  breeding  season  of  the  quail  begins  in 
May  and  extends  as  far  as  September;  probably  two 
broods  are  raised  in  the  northern  states  and  three  in  the 
southern.  Why  so  valuable  an  ally  of  the  farmers  of  the 
land  should  annually  be  killed  off  in  such  numbers  by  men 
is  inexplainable,  save  on  the  ground  that  their  slaughter 
is  the  gratification  of  an  instinct  which  is  savage  at  best, 
and  probably  a  relic  of  the  old  days  when  man  was  a 
savage  and  had  to  conquer  the  animals  about  him  in  order 
to  survive.  If  such  enthusiasts  would  turn  their  attention 
to  the  fierce  carnivorous  animals,  tigers,  lynxes,  cata- 
mounts, .  for  example,  instead  of  some  small,  weak, 
fluttering  bird,  perhaps  with  a  nestf ul  of  young,  it  would 
be  creditable  to  the  man,  kind  to  the  bird,  and  beneficial  to 
the  human  tribe  in  general. 

Certain  climatic  conditions  seem  to  check  the  spread 
of  the  chinch  bug.  Heavy  rains,  especially  in  May,  the 
height  of  its  breeding  season,  or  a  continuously  cold,  wet 
spring,  impose  quite  effective  restraints  upon  it. 

Among  the  artificial,  or  perhaps  one  should  say,  the 
other  natural  enemies,  are  two  tiny  mould  plants,  similar 
to  the  moulds  which  attack  our  house  flies  in  the  autumn, 
leaving  them  a  mere  shell  filled  with  the  white  thready 
growth  of  the  plant.  Certain  bacteria  are  also  present  in 
the  intestinal  caeca.  As  early  as  1865,  Dr.  Shiner  recorded 
the  fact  of  finding  large  numbers  of  chinch  bugs  of  all 
ages,  dead  upon  native  grasses  and  corn.  He  called  it  a 


Il6  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

disease,  and  mentioned  the  fact  that  the  weather  was  wet, 
cloudy,  and  cool.  Forbes'  investigations  began  in  1892. 
He  proceeded  on  the  theory  of  bacterial  disease.  He 
found  that  bacteria  completely  destroy  the  secreting 
glands  of  the  tissue  lining  the  delicate  intestinal  tract  of 
the  chinch  bug.  This  leaves  the  intestinal  tract  filled 
with  a  mass  of  the  bacteria  together  with  a  small  inter- 
mixture of  fat  globules  and  a  little  detritus  of  nonde- 
script sort.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  moulds  are 
saprophytes ;  that  is,  they  grow  on  decaying  matter.  And 
here  is  the  agency  furnishing  the  exact  condition  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  the  mould  plants — this  decaying 
intestinal  matter.  It  remained  for  Snow  of  Kansas  to 
make  the  practical  application  of  the  early  knowledge 
along  these  lines.  In  a  report  made  to  the  State -Board  of 
Agriculture,  in  1887,  he  urged  this  theory  of  chinch  bug 
disease  and  its  significance  to  the  crop-growers.  In  1889, 
the  first  trial  was  made.  There  was  much  to  learn  about 
it;  such  as  the  fact  that  these  bacteria  flourish  best  in  cool, 
wet  weather,  and  that  the  fungous  disease  produced  by 
the  two  moulds  is  a  secondary  enemy,  and  must  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  bacteria.  Hence  clouds  and  rain,  bacteria 
and  moulds  must  work  in  conjunction,  or  the  slaughter 
of  chinch  bugs  will  not  be  effective. 

The  insidious  flower  bug,  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
enemies  of  the  chinch  bug,  is  also  valuable  from  its  habit 
of  preying  on  other  harmful  insects.  It  was  formerly 
called  the  false  chinch  bug,  was  of  ten  found  associated  with 
it,  and  looks  considerably  like  it  as  to  colors  and  markings, 
but  has  a  much  broader  body  from  the  head  backward. 
Instead  of  assisting  the  chinch  bug  to  pump  the  sap  out 
of  plants  it  turns  the  tables  and  destroys  many  of  these 
pests. 


HEMIPTERA.  IIJ 

The  soldier  bug  is  yellowish  as  to  body  color;  the  legs 
and  antennae  are  banded  with  fine  black  bands.  These 
insect  enemies  of  the  chinch  bug  are  to  be  valued,  especially 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  pest  belongs  to  a  group 
of  insects  one  of  whose  effective  means  of  protection  is  a 
disagreeable  odor  which  usually  protects  them  from  their 
enemies. 


FIG.  49.  FIG.  50. 

FIG.  49. — Soldier  bug,  Milyas  cinetus.     (Howard,  after  Riley.} 
FIG.  50. — An  assassin  bug,  Reduvius  personatus.     (Howard.} 


The  assassin  bugs,  as  their  name  indicates,  are 
predaceous,  hence  helpful  to  man.  But  one  of  these 
insects  has  a  name  less  indicative  of  commendable  habits ; 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  kissing  bug  in  newspaper  par- 
lance, as  it  has  the  occasional  habit  of  piercing  the  skin  of 
human  beings.  In  this  case  the  saliva  injected  into  the 
wound  made  by  the  stylets  is,  to  say  the  least,  irritating 
to  the  human  victim  if  its  effects  are  not  more 
disagreeable. 


n8 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


Some   harmful   hemipters    and   their    bird    enemies 
might  be  mentioned: 


Squash  bugs 

Hawks 

Stink  bugs 

House  wrens 

Chinch  bugs 

Quails 
Meadow  larks 

Scale  insects 

Downy  woodpeckers 

Bark  lice 

Hairy  woodpeckers 
Nuthatches 

Seventeen-year  cicadas 

Cranes 


Song  sparrows 

Prairie  chickens 
Kildeers 

Brown  creepers 

Chickadees 
Brown  creepers 


The  order  includes  about  five  thousand  species  for 
North  America  alone;  and  yet  it  is  a  comparatively  small 
order,  the  Coleoptera  including  more  than  eleven  thousand 
species,  and  that  order  falls  far  behind  the  order  of  the 
flies  in  point  of  numbers.  When  the  systematist  says 
species,  he  means  kinds;  so  there  are  more  than  five 
thousand  kinds  of  bugs. 


CHAPTER  X. 
FIELD  WORK  ON  LEPIDOPTERA. 

An  expedition  for  lepidopters  should  be  made  to  the 
open    meadows    and    fields    some    sunshiny    afternoon, 
between  two  and  four  o'clock. 
Discover : 

What  colors  are  represented  in  the  lepidopters  which 
you  find  in  these  places? 

What  are  they  seeking  as  food  ? 

Are  their  habits  of  visiting  flowers  promiscuous,  or 
constant  as  to  a  given  food  source  ? 

Do  they  know  an  enemy  when  one  approaches  them  ? 

Can  you  tell  anything  about  how  far  a  butterfly 
can  see? 

Are  you  able  to  see  the  synchronous  wing  action? 

What  is  the  manner  of  disposing  of  the  wings  when 
not  in  use,  that  is,  when  the  insect  is  resting  on  some 
object? 

Do  butterflies  and  moths  ever  walk? 

Do  they  see  or  smell  their  food? 

Another  expedition  should  be  made  early  in  the  day, 
before  the  dew  is  off  the  grass,  to  some  waste  lot  or  the 
south  side  of  hedge  rows,  or  wherever  the  grass  grows  tall. 

Can  you  discover  whether  butterflies  sleep  ? 

Are  flowers  fragrant  at  this  time  of  day? 

Is  the  dew  on  the  insects  as  well  as  on  the  flowers? 
An  expedition  should  be  made  to  the  woods  early  in  the 
afternoon. 

119 


I2Q  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

Do  you  find  butterflies  ?     Moths  ? 

Are  they  working  in  the  shady  depths  of  the  wood- 
land or  in  the  fringe? 

Do  the  colors  of  these  insects  differ  from  the  colors 
of  those  you  found  in  the  expedition  to  the  open  fields? 

Look  on  tree  branches,  bushes,  or  tall  weeds,  and 
even  smaller  plants  for  pupa  cases.  Look  in  the  garden, 
or  on  the  forest  trees,  on  fruit  trees,  and  bushes  for  larvae. 
Be  sure  to  discover  what  each  caterpillar  is  eating. 
Bring  home  these  caterpillars  with  sufficient  food  to  last 
them  for  some  time.  If  you  do  not  know  where  to  get 
any  more  of  the  same  kind,  take  home  plenty  to  last  the 
larva  for  the  rest  of  its  larval  life. 

Once  home,  the  plants  must  be  freshened  in  water 
if  they  were  not  put  into  an  air-tight  box  on  being  cut; 
and  some  sort  of  a  place  must  be  made  in  which  to  keep 
your  "finds."  You  will  find  that  your  caterpillars  will 
stay  with  you  contentedly  if  they  have  the  right  kind 
of  food  and  plenty  of  it,  and  are  not  so  crowded  that  they 
frighten  each  other  off. 

A  good  crawlery  for  your  caterpillars  is  a  large  pan 
with  vertical  sides.  This  will  also  hold  water  to  keep  the 
twigs  and  leaves  fresh ;  and  if  you  do  not  have  too  many 
different  kinds,  one  pan  will  likely  keep  all  of  them. 
The  pan  must  be  cleaned  each  day;  lift  out  the  twigs,  the 
caterpillars,  and  any  leaves  that  you  may  have  there  as 
food,  and  return  them  after  cleaning  the  pan.  This  pan 
is  useful  in  another  way;  most  caterpillars  must  have 
water  to  drink,  and  this  will  be  supplied  by  the  water  in  the 
pan.  It  is  really  interesting  to  see  a  caterpillar  stop 
eating  to  drink  up  some  water  drop  that  it  may  have 
found. 

Caterpillars  moult  frequently  and  rest  occasionally 


FIELD    WORK   ON   LEPIDOPTERA.  121 

during  the  day;  but,  when  fully  grown,  will  either  spin  a 
cocoon  in  some  nook  among  the  leaves  or  will  go  off  into 
some  secluded  place  and  "pout"  until  you  give  them  a 
box  of  earth,  when  they  will  disappear  by  burrowing 
beneath  the  soil;  and  that  will  be  the  last  of  them  you 
will  see  for  some  days,  weeks,  or  months,  according  to 
what  kind  of  a  caterpillar  you  have.  The  earth  for  this 
box  should  be  sifted  and  should  not  be  very  dry.  The 
top  of  the  soil  should  be  lightly  sprinkled  occasionally, 
and  ought  to  be  kept  in  some  cool  place,  as  cool  as  possible 
and  still  be  above  freezing.  Some  caterpillars  spend  the 
winter  in  such  burrows  where  the  temperature  is  much 
below  that  of  the  house.  Even  with  all  your  care  in 
keeping  the  box  cool,  the  butterfly  or  the  moth  will 
usually  appear  before  his  outdoor  brothers  and  sisters 
have  stirred  in  their  winter  beds.  The  perfection  of  skill 
would  be  reached  if  you  arranged  to  have  some  blooming 
plants  ready  for  your  moths  and  butterflies  to  feed  on. 
Sweet  alyssum  or  petunias  might  be  tried. 

Arrange  matters  so  that  you  can  stay  in  some  flower 
garden  from  sundown  till  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  when  the 
flowers  are  in  full  bloom  and  the  moon  is  near  the  full. 

As  the  twilight  comes  on,  which  flowers  disappear 
first? 

Which  flowers  can  you  still  see  just  between  dark 
and  moon  rise? 

Can  you  discover  any  insects  working  during  early 
twilight?  Are  they  moths  or  butterflies? 

Do  any  insects  come  after  moon  rise  ?  What  brought 
them  ?  How  do  they  find  what  they  want  ? 

As  a  general  proposition,  do  moths  and  butterflies 
confer  benefit  or  do  they  do  harm?  In  the  late  summer, 
moths  and  butterflies  may  be  secured  for  the  collection 


122  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

box;   by  that  time  they  will  have  completed  their  life 
work  and  death  will  soon  come  to  them  naturally. 

In  setting  up  a  lepidopter,  after  making  sure  that  it  is 
dead,  thrust  the  pin  through  the  thorax,  setting  the 
insect  well  up  toward  the  top  of  the  pin ;  then  set  the  pin 
with  the  insect  on  it  in  the  trough  of  the  drying-board, 
to  such  a  depth  that  the  wings  lie  on  the  sides  of  the 
board  at  a  slight  angle  with  the  plane  of  the  body,  say 
25°.  Carefully  spread  the  wings,  front  and  hind  wings 
on  both  sides  of  the  body,  in  order  to  display  the  veins 
and  color  markings.  If  the  trough  is  too  wide  to  allow 
the  weighting  of  the  wings  after  they  are  stretched,  put 
a  piece  of  stiff  paper  or  card  board  on  the  board  under  the 
wings  and  stretch  the  wings  on  this.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  break  off  the  legs  of  the  lepidopters,  and  the 
antennae  must  also  be  carefully  preserved. 


LEPIDOPTERA. 
CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  Four  wings. 

2.  The  wings  generally  clothed  with  scales;  the  differ- 
ent colors  of  the  scales  make  regular  patterns  on  the 
wing  surface.     There  are  a  few  clear-wings  with  the 
scales  nearly  absent. 

3.  Body  densely  clothed  with  hairs. 

4.  A  sucking  proboscis  which  is  coiled  under  the  head. 

5.  Mandibles  almost  indiscernible. 

6.  Butterflies  have  clubbed  antennas  swollen   at   the 
ends. 

7.  Moths   have   antennas   of   various   forms    but    not 
clubbed. 

8.  Butterflies  at  rest  fold  their  wings  together  above 
the  back;  while  moths  leave  their  wings  extended 
when  at  rest. 


123 


LEPIDOPTERA. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  moths  and  the  butterflies. 
Both  of  the  divisions  are  characterized  by  the  presence 
of  scales  on  the  front  and  hind  wings  and  on  the  body  as 
well.  These  scales  are  modified  hairs;  indeed,  on  some 
parts  of  the  body  of  most  members  of  the  order,  there  are 
to  be  found  hairs,  either  simple  or  branched,  along  with 
the  scales.  The  color  and  arrangement  of  these  scales 
and  hairs  are  so  constant  that  they  constitute  a  basis  of 
classification  for  many  species  of  moths  and  butterflies. 
(Fig.  51.)  A  very  few  exceptional  species  are  wingless  as  to 
the  females,  and  a  few  species  with  clear  wings  look  very 
much  like  bees.  But  if  one  is  fortunate  enough  to  find  one 
of  the  clear- wings  when  it  has  just  come  out  of  the  pupal 
case,  he  will  find  its  wings 
quite  plentifully  provided 
with  scales;  these  readily 
wear  off.  Indeed,  in  any  of 
the  order,  the  old  insect  pre- 
sents a  bedraggled  appear- 
ance, many  of  the  beautiful 
scales  having  been  worn  off  FlG-  si.-Portion  of  wing  of  lepi- 

...  dopter,  snowing  scales  and  scale  pits. 

in    its    struggles    with    hard 

winds  or  bird  enemies,  or  perchance  some  cat  or  dog  chas- 
ing it.  The  venation  of  the  wings  is  constant,  and  the 
modifications  from  the  type  are  so  slight  that  venation  con- 
stitutes another  basis  of  classification.  (Fig.  52  A  and  B.) 
A  characteristic  which  serves  to  separate  this  order 
from  all  other  orders  of  insects  is  the  highly  modified  con- 

125 


126 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


dition  of  the  mouth-parts.  In  most  species  of  the  order 
there  is  a  well-developed  proboscis.  (Fig.  53 .)  This  differs 
from  the  sucking  beak  of  the  hemipters  structurally, 
and  it  is  also  unlike  it  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used. 


FIG.  52,  A. — Front  wing  of  monarch  butterfly,  showing  veins.  C,  costal; 
SC,  subcostal;  R,  radius;  DC,  discal  cell;  R,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  branches  of  radius; 
M,  i,  2,  3,  branches  of  median  vein;  CU,  cubitus;  A,  anal  vein. 


FIG.  52,  B. — Hind  wing  of  monarch  butterfly,  showing  veins;  lettering  same  as 
for  front  wing.     The  scent  pocket  is  shown  on  the  Cu2  vein. 

The  beak  of  the  hemipter  is  a  stiff  organ,  and  when  not  in 
use,  is  usually  folded  once  sharply  under  the  head,  against 
the  thorax,  by  means  of  the  hinge-like  articulation  just 
where  the  beak  joins  the  head.  Not  only  is  this  true, 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


I27 


but  the  hemipter  must  first  pierce  the  epidermis  of  its 
victim  before  it  can  avail  itself  of  the  store  of  liquid  food ; 
while  the  sucking  proboscis  of  the  lepidopter  is  coiled 
neatly  under  the  head  when  not  in  use,  and  when  getting 
its  food,  the  butterfly  uncoils  its  proboscis,  puts  it  far 
enough  down  into  the  flower  cup 
to  reach  the  nectar,  and  then 
drinks  much  as  if  one  were  sipping 
lemonade  through  a  straw.  This 
proboscis  consists  of  the  greatly- 
modified  maxillae  applied  to  each 
other  so  that  the  two  fit  tightly 
along  a  common  groove.  (Fig. 
53.)  This  feeding  organ,  in  some 
of  the  sphinx  moths,  projects  four 
or  five  inches  in  front  of  the  head, 
when  it  is  uncoiled  in  the  act  of 
sucking  the  nectar  from  some 
deep  flower  cup.  (Fig.  54.)  In 
other  species  of  lepidopters  it  is 
only  a  fraction  of  an  inch  long. 

If  you  watch  a  sphinx  moth 
at  a  trumpet  creeper  blossom  or  antenna;  /, 
a   moon   flower,   you  will   see  it 

uncoil  this  proboscis  and  lower  it  into  the  flower  cup, 
(Fig.  55)  all  the  time  humming  busily.  These  sphinx 
moths  are  often  mistaken  for  humming  birds.  The  other 
mouth  parts  are,  in  the  great  majority  of  lepidopters, 
reduced  to  mere  rudiments.  The  significance  of  this  fact 
is  apparent  when  the  butterfly's  manner,  of  food-getting 
is  considered. 

Other  instincts  than  taste  are  determinative  in  the 
butterfly's  choice  of  food.     Apparently,  sight  and  smell 


FIG.  53. — Head  of  a  butterfly, 
Vanessa.     Labial  palpus;  p,  a, 


128 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


play  a  large  part  in  the  search  for  food.     It  would  seem 
that  it  would  be  a  decided  disadvantage,  if  not  a  positive 


FIG.  54. — Adult  of  tomato  worm,  showing  sucking  proboscis  uncoiled. 


FIG.  55. — A  sphinx  moth.     Phlegethontius  sexta  visiting  flower  of  Petunia. 
(Reduced.    Folsom.) 

danger,  if  the  butterfly  were  compelled  to  wait  upon  a 
taste  decision  until  the  liquid  food  had  traversed  the 


LEPIDOPTERA.  I 29 

length  of  the  sucking  tube,  unless  it  were  true  that  the 
taste  cells  are  located  at  the  entrance  to  the  proboscis,  or 
somewhere  near  the  entrance ;  and  the  microscopic  exami- 
nation of  the  proboscis  seems  not  to  warrant  this  assertion. 
In  one  of  the  representative  families  of  the  order 
the  mouth  parts  are  as  well  developed  as  they  are  in  the 
beetles ;  but  these  minute  moths  are  exceptions  among  the 
Lepidoptera.  They  are  extremely  small  insects,  being 
only  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long;  the  front  and  hind 
wings  are  about  equal  in  size  and  curiously  veined.  Not 
only  is  this  true,  but  the  mode  of  fastening  the  wings 
together  on  each  side  of  the  body  is  different  from  the 
other  lepidopters.  This  latter  peculiarity  is  shared  by  the 
Swifts  or  Hepialidae.  These  latter  moths  are  larger  than 
the  ones  first  mentioned,  the  Eriocephalas,  being  from  an 
inch  to  two  inches  long.  Their  wings  are  also  very  nearly 
equal  in  size  and  are  similar  to  the  Eriocephala  wing  in 
venation.  The  peculiar  method  of  fastening  the  front 
and  the  hind  wing  together, 
shared  by  these  two  sorts  of 
moths,  is  a  small  stiff  hook  or 
chitin  rib  projecting  backward 
from  the  front  wing  and  fitting 
under  the  costal  margin  of  the  FlG"  s^-Front  wing  of  a  jugate 

moth,  showing  the  jugum. 

hind  wing,  while  the  rest  of  the 

wing  fits  over  the  costal  margin  of  the  hind  wing.  (Fig. 
56.)  This  projection  is  called  a  jugum,  meaning  a  yoke; 
and  hence  these  members  of  the  Lepidoptera  are  called 
the  Jugatse. 

These  moths  are  interesting  from  another  point  of 
view.  They  are  undoubtedly  the  most  primitive  living 
lepidopters,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  remnants  of  what, 
at  an  earlier  geological  period,  must  have  been  a  much 

9 


130 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


larger  tribe  of  insects.  Differentiation  of  cells,  tissues, 
or  organs  is  held  by  the  scientist  to  mark  an  upward 
step  in  the  continuous  stream  of  life.  The  conspicuous 
similarity  of  the  wings  of  these  jugate  moths  thus  indi- 
cates their  low  position  among  the  Lepidoptera;  this  is 
all  the  more  apparent  when  one  becomes  familiar  with 
the  immense  number  of  differentiations  along  just  this  line, 
which  are  found  in  the  other  great  division  of  the  order— 


FIG.  57  A.  FIG.  57  B. 

FIG.  57,  A. — Hind  wing  of  a  frenate  lepidopter,  showing  the  frenulum. 
FIG.  57,  B. — Hind  wing  of  a  frenate  lepidopter,  showing  wing  angle,  serving 
as  the  frenulum  substitute. 

the  Frenatse,  and  not  only  among  the  lepidopter s  but 
among  the  other  orders  of  insects.  (Fig.  57,  A  and  B.) 
Among  the  beetles,  the  grasshoppers,  and  the  crickets,  as 
well  as  the  bugs,  the  wings  are  so  far  differentiated  as  to 
make  the  hind  wings  bear  the  burden  of  flight,  while  the 
front  wings  are  reduced  to  wing-covers  or  elytra  as  they  are 
called.  But  in  the  bees  and  the  wasps  the  front  wings  are 
the  main  flight  pair.  In  the  dragon  flies  the  two  pairs  of 
wings  share  equally  in  the  act  of  flying,  besides  acting 
independently.  In  the  flies  the  hind  pair  of  wings  are 
represented  only  by  stumps  of  wings,  remains  of  what  in 
an  earlier  age  in  the  earth's  history  may  have  been  an 
effective  pair  of  wings  performing  their  full  share  of  the 


LEPIDOPTERA.  131 

labor  of  flight.  In  harmony  with  this  view,  the  points 
of  structure  as  well  as  of  metamorphosis  lead  our  principal 
investigators  to  place  the  bees  and  the  wasps  higher  than 
the  grasshoppers  and  the  crickets,  and  the  flies  at  the 
head  of  the  insect  orders. 

Another  law  which  seems  to  find  exemplification 
here — the  lowest  individual  in  any  class  repeats  the  life 
history  of  the  individuals  below  it  and  anticipates  the 
new  features  of  the  individuals  above  it.  According  to 
this  law,  we  should  find  that  the  jugate  moths  have 
related  forms  among  the  insects  below  the  Lepidoptera; 
and  so  we  do  find  that  some  of  these  moths  have  the  same 
kind  of  mouth  parts  as  have  the  grasshoppers  and  the 
beetles,  and  the  same  mode  of  fastening  the  wings  together 
as  have  the  caddis  flies,  curious  insects  which  spend  their 
larval  period  in  the  water  and  have  a  short  adult  period 
with  probably  little  aim  or  accomplishment  beyond  the 
production  of  their  progeny.  And  on  the  other  hand, 
these  primitive  jugate  moths  have  the  scaly  wings  of  the 
more  highly  differentiated  and  typical  lepidopters. 

The  Lepidoptera  all  reproduce  their  kind  by  complete 
metamorphosis,  all  of  them  passing  from  the  egg  to  the 
larva,  then  to  the  pupa,  then  to  the  adult  stage.  The 
eggs  are  not  smooth-coated  as  are  the  eggs  of  most  other 
insects,  but  always  have  some  fine  sculpturing  over  the 
surface.  The  larvae  are  the  familiar  caterpillars  of  the 
garden  or  the  field.  The  pupas  are  a  little  less  familiar, 
but  the  observer  surely  has  seen  some  of  the  curious, 
mummy-like  cases,  big  and  little,  hung  up  in  all  sorts  of 
queer  places,  waiting  for  the  great  change  from  pupa  to 
butterfly  or  moth. 

Birds  are  the  natural  enemies  of  insects,  and  lepidop- 
ters are  easier  to  catch  in  the  caterpillar  stage  than  in  the 


I32 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


adult  form;  nevertheless  these  caterpillars,  sluggish  as 
they  are,  are  not  without  means  of  defense.  For  any 
living  organism,  the  natural  thing  is  to  continue  to  live; 
hence,  we  find  that  all  activities  of  existing  life  forms 
have  the  general  trend  toward  the  preservation  of  the 
individual;  though  all  may  not  be  successful  in  every 
case.  We  must  remember  that  the  struggle  for  existence 
is  not  between  the  species  and  the  conditions  that  surround 
it,  but  between  the  individual  and  those  conditions,  as  it 
faces  alone  the  manifold  influences  which  may  mean 
persistence  through  adaptive  response,  or  may  present 
the  fatal  alternative  of  death  through  the  possibility  of 
non-adjustment  to  conditions.  The  hairy  caterpillars 
are  an  uncomfortable  mouthful  for  most  birds;  though  it 
often  happens  that  a  specially  meaty  caterpillar  is  whipped 
clean  of  the  objectionable  hairs  by  some  diligent  bird 
who  is  likewise  struggling  for  existence — dinner  in  this 
case.  The  brilliantly-colored  caterpillars  are  generally 
let  alone  by  birds,  and  it  is  known  for  some  of  them  at 
least,  that  the  brilliant  coloration  is  accompanied  by  some 
poisonous  substance  or  acrid  taste,  and  hence  they  are 
not  good  eating.  Many  of  the  larvae  have  the  same  body 
colors  as  the  things  they  feed  on,  and  so  pass  unnoticed 
in  many  cases. 

The  larvae  are. provided  with  biting  mouth  parts,  and 
all  are  fruit-  or  leaf-eaters;  this  places  the  members  of 
this  order  among  the  non-beneficial  insects  so  far  as  their 
larvae  are  concerned,  but  it  is  only  in  the  larval  stage 
that  they  are  troublesome.  In  the  pupal  stage  the  insect 
eats  little  or  nothing,  only  such  food  as  the  greedy  larva 
has  provided  for  it;  while  in  the  adult  stage,  the  general 
usefulness  of  the  moths  and  the  butterflies  to  the  farmer 
and  the  fruit-grower  can  hardly  be  overestimated.- 


LEPIDOPTERA.  133 

Besides  this  benefit  as  pollen  distributors,  the  moth  known 
as  the  Chinese  silkworm  moth,  in  its  larval  stage,  furnishes 
the  raw  material  for  the  silk  of  commerce. 

Of  course,  the  larvae  do  not  all  eat  plants  upon  which 
man  depends.  Many  of  them  eat  plants  for  which  man 
does  not  care  at  all,  or  plants  which  are  actually  injurious 
so  far  as  man  is  concerned;  but  the  order  has  the  unenviable 
reputation  of  being  more  nearly  uniformly  injurious  in 
its  larval  stage  than  any  other  order. 

Some  of  the  larvae  that  are  commonly  found  are  the 
larvae  of  the  sphinx  moths,  such  as  the  penman,  the 
tomato  worm,  the  tobacco  worm;  and  also  the  regal  moth, 
the  luna  moth,  the  tent  caterpillars,  the  handmaid  moths, 
the  black  swallow-tail,  the  well-knowTn  cabbage  butterflies, 
the  monarch  butterfly,  the  measuring  worms,  the  plump 
greasy  caterpillars  called  cutworms,  and  the  Noctuids, 
moths  that  often  fly  into  our  houses  after  night,  attracted 
by  the  light.  Taking  these  in  their  order: 

Penmarked  Sphinx  (larva). — Greenish-  or  bluish- 
white  above,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  body  there  are  seven 
yellow  stripes  placed  obliquely  and  bordered  above  with 
a  dark  green  stripe.  When  disturbed,  it  throws  up  the 
front  end  of  the  body  in  a  threatening  attitude ;  this  last 
fact  is  common  to  many  of  the  sphinxes. 

Tomato  Worm. — Much  resembles  the  preceding 
larva;  is  usually  green,  but  some  individual  specimens 
may  be  brownish  and  even  reddish- brown.  Its  pupa 
is  often  found  and  may  be  recognized  by  the  curious 
handle  that  curves  backward  and  under  the  brown  body 
case. 

Tobacco  Worm. — Much  the  same  as  the  larva  just 
described;  the  larvae  are  very  similar  but  the  adults  are 
distinguishable. 


134  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

The  Regal  Moth  (larva). — This  is  the  largest  larva 
that  we  have  in  the  United  States,  measuring  from  four 
to  five  and  a  half  inches  in  length.  It  may  be  distin- 
guished from  all  other  caterpillars  by  the  very  long  spines 
with  which  it  is  armed,  but  which  are  "not  loaded." 
They  are  harmless  but  usually  serve  their  purpose  by 
frightening  off  credulous  birds. 

Luna  Moth  (larva). — Pale  bluish-green  with  a  much 
lighter  head,  usually  white  in  most  specimens.  On  the 
back  are  small  purplish  or  reddish  warty  protuberances, 
about  six  to  each  abdominal  segment;  in  addition  there 
is  a  pale  yellowish  line  along  each  side  of  the  body. 

Tent  Caterpillars. — Social  larvae,  never  feeding  alone, 
and  the  tribe  generally  making  a  web  in  which  the  young 
larvae  live;  some  species  of  them  come  out  of  this  web  to 
feed,  returning  to  it  at  night,  or  whenever  not  feeding. 
Others  live  in  the  web  for  the  entire  larval  period;  and 
this  they  make  provision  for  by  spinning  a  web  about  the 
branch  which  they  wish  to  devour,  the  completed  tent 
often  measuring  more  than  a  foot  in  length.  The  apple 
tree  tent  caterpillar  is  black,  at  least  very  dark,  with 
white  stripes  along  the  back,  and  with  yellow  and  blue 
spots.  The  forest  tree  tent  caterpillar  is  larger  than  the 
apple  tree  pest,  and  usually  has  less  of  blue  on  its  body, 
though  they  seem  sometimes  indistinguishable  except 
by  size. 

Handmaid  Moth  (larva) . — Often  called  yellow-necked 
appletree  caterpillar;  reddish-black  with  bright  yellow 
stripes ;  many  scores  of  the  caterpillars  in  a  wriggling  mass. 
Each  caterpillar  has  the  habit  of  jerking  the  front  and  the 
hind  end  of  its  body  up  and  down,  probably  to  frighten 
off  any  waiting  enemy.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the 
Tachina  flies  appreciate  a  juicy  find  of  these  worms, 


LEPIDOPTERA.  135 

and  with  them  the  threatening  is  unavailing,  for  the 
Tachinas  usually  succeed  in  laying  their  eggs  in  the 
bodies  of  the  protesting  worms,  where  the  young  Tachinas 
soon  proceed  to  use  up  the  caterpillars  to  the  satisfaction 
of  every  one  except  the  caterpillars. 

Black  Swallow-tail  (larva). — A  dark  green  worm 
with  many  black  rings  and  bright  yellow  spots;  two 
yellow  horns  on  the  segments  of  the  body  just  behind  the 
head  are  protruded  if  the  caterpillar  is  disturbed,  a  sicken- 
ing odor  coming  off  as  the  result  of  the  disturbance. 

Cabbage  Worms. — Slender  green  worms  covered  with 
very  fine  soft  hairs,  and  usually  with  some  pale  yellow 
lines  about  the  body.  According  to  Comstock,  the  moth 
produces  three  broods  in  the  middle  latitudes  of  the 
United  States.  The  effective  work  against  it,  then, 
would  have  to  be  done  before  the  cabbages  head  in  the 
spring.  He  gives  pyrethrum  powder  and  also  kerosene 
emulsion  as  effective  treatments  of  this  really  serious 
pest. 

Monarch  Butterfly  (larva) . — The  larvae  are  often  called 
tiger  caterpillars,  greenish- white  worms  with  shining 
black  bands  about  the  body  from  head  to  tip  of  abdomen. 
It  grows  rapidly,  and  turns  into  the  familiar  golden-brown 
pupa  hung  by  its  big  tail-end  to  some  leaf  or  twig,  the 
pupa  showing  green  and  gold  inside  it. 

Measuring  Worms. — The  familiar  loopers  that  chil- 
dren are  not  usually  afraid  of.  They  have  a  curious 
habit  of  standing  up  on  their  hind  legs  to  ' '  view  the  land- 
scape o'er,"  swaying  the  body  from  side  to  side  as  if 
looking  for  a  good  place  to  eat  next.  They  are  probably 
attempting  to  frighten  off  any  possible  enemy  by  their 
startling  movements.  Another  device  they  have,  if 
the  first  does  not  work,  is  to  drop  suddenly  off  the  branch, 


136  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

and  you  think  the  poor  fellow  certainly  has  killed  himself; 
but  you  may  discover  later  on  that  he  is  swinging  craftily 
at  the  end  of  a  silken  web  which  he  spun  for  safety  when 
you  surprised  him.  As  if  these  were  not  enough  devices 
for  one  worm,  if  he  is  at  all  warned  of  your  coming  or  if 
the  cuckoo  says  anything  before  she  gets  near  enough  to 
see  him,  he  will  throw  up  the  forward  end  of  his  body, 
sticking  it  straight  out  into  the  air,  stiff  and  motionless, 
and  the  bird  often  passes  this  new  kind  of  twig  by.  But 
justice  sometimes  has  her  due,  and  the  villain  is  eaten  after 
all  his  schemes  have  failed. 

Cutworms. — The  pests  which,  in  addition  to  eating  a 
goodly  share  of  our  field  and  garden  crops,  also  cut  off 
plants  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  thus  destroying  much 
more  than  they  can  eat.  The  larvae  on  hatching  out 
either  eat  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  upon  which  the 
egg  was  laid,  or  else  crawl  to  the  branches  of  some  tree 
to  feed  during  the  day,  coming  back  to  the  ground  burrow 
to  spend  the  night  in  safety.  They  are  at  first  minute 
worms,  but  soon  grow  larger  and  look  greasy  and  plump,  and 
are  dark  brown  with  lighter  longitudinal  lines.  According 
to  Comstock,  the  time  and  the  way  to  catch  the  ground- 
feeding  worms  is  early  in  the  morning  or  late  the  previous 
night  by  making  holes  in  the  ground  close  to  the  feeding- 
places.  The  worms  will  crawl  into  these  holes  to  keep 
warm  or  to  hide  as  it  grows  light,  and  will  be  unable  to 
crawl  out  again  if  the  sides  of  the  holes  are  smooth.  The 
tree-feeders  can  be  caught  by  spreading  a  sheet  under  the 
the  tree  and  shaking  the  worms  off,  when  they  can  be 
readily  disposed  of. 

Some  bird  enemies  of  the  harmful  Lepidoptera  de- 
serve mention  here : 


LEPIDOPTERA. 


137 


Forest  and  apple  tree  tent  caterpillars. 

Black-billed  and  yellow-billed  cuckoos 

Large  caterpillars  of  all  sorts. 

Hawks 

Hairy  and  spiny  caterpillars  generally. 

The  two  cuckoos,  black-billed  and  yellow-billed 
Blue  jays  Catbirds 

Robins  Bluebirds 

Gypsy  moth  caterpillars. 

Yellow- billed  and  black- billed  cuckoos 
Robins  Blue  jays 

Baltimore  orioles  Chickadees 

Catbirds  Chippies 

Vireos  Crows 


Smooth  caterpillars. 

Brown  thrashers 
House  wrens 
The  two  cuckoos 

Cutworms. 

House  wrens 
Sparrows,  many  of  them 
English  sparrows 
Quails 

Cankerworms. 

Chickadees 
Robins 
Catbirds 
Brown  thrashers 

Army  worms. 

Quails 


Sparrows,  many  of  them 
English  sparrows 


Blackbirds 
Screech  owls 
Meadow  larks 
Robins 

House  wrens 
Baltimore  orioles 
Summer  yellowbirds 
Bluebirds 

Nearly   the  whole  sparrow 
family. 


138  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

The  Lepidoptera  are  widely  distributed  over  the 
earth's  surface,  some  of  them  being  found  within  the 
Arctic  circle,  while  others  have  the  whole  tropic  range. 
According  to  Kellogg,  Vanessa  cardui,  the  Cosmopolitan, 
is  found  in  every  one  of  the  continents  outside  the  polar 
circles.  Some  of  the  other  species  of  butterflies  are  found 
high  up  on  mountains,  near  the  timber  line.  Even  the 
snow  flowers  of  the  Alps  have  their  insect  visitors. 


CHAPTER  XL 
FIELD  WORK  ON  HYMENOPTERA. 

Various  lines  of  investigation  have  already  been 
suggested  in  the  discussion  of  the  order  as  a  whole.  If 
you  are  near  an  apiary  in  charge  of  some  old  bee-keeper, 
the  best  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to  visit  him  and  ask 
permission  to  go  about  with  him  while  he  tends  his  bees. 
Then,  if  you  are  wise  in  your  questions  and  economical 
of  his  time,  you  may  be  able  to  induce  him  to  talk  of  his 
bees  and  possibly  to  show  you  some  of  the  brood  combs 
with  worker,  drone,  and  queen  cells.  Stand  still  for  at 
least  five  minutes  and  watch  the  bees  coming  and  going; 
note  their  manner  of  flight,  whether  it  is  direct,  or  waver- 
ing and  uncertain.  How  far  off  can  you  see  them  coming 
home?  Must  their  sense  of  the  direction  of  home  from 
the  last  flower  visited,  been  stronger  than  yours  would 
have  been?  Do  you  believe  that  it  is  sight  alone  that 
guides  the  home-coming? 

Walk  out  a  little  way  to  where  the  flowers  that 
are  being  visited  are  growing.  Take  your  reading 
glass  and  turn  it  on  some  bee  found  in  a  flower  cluster. 
She  will  not  notice  you  and  you  will  have  a  chance  to  see 
how  she  does  it.  Remember  that  you  are -looking  at  one 
of  the  domesticated  animals  that  have  lived  with  man  so 
long  that  they  are  not  fearful  of  his  presence  when  on 
flower  business. 

For  observation  of  the  bees  in  the  school-room,  a 
rather  narrow  hive  box  may  be  provided.  Get  some 
carpenter  to  make  it;  or  there  may  be  some  ingenious 

139 


I40  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

boy  in  the  high  school  or  the  grades  who  may  be  able 
himself  to  make  a  frame  with  glass  sides  and  wooden  ends 
with  a  slit  low  down  in  one  end  for  the  in-going  and  out- 
coming  of  the  bees.  Stand  the  hive  on  a  shelf  or  a  table 
pushed  close  to  the  window.  Raise  the  window  a  little 
and  put  under  the  sash  a  thin  strip  of  lumber  as  wide  as 
the  window  opening  and  with  a  slit  cut  in  it,  so  as  to  be 
just  opposite  the  opening  into  the  hive.  When  this  is 
done  you  can  either  push  the  hive  close  up  to  the  window 
or  leave  it  a  little  way  out.  If  the  latter,  lay  down  two 
strips  of  wood  to  reach  from  the  hive  entrance  to  the 
opening  in  the  window  strip  and  cover  these  with  a  piece 
of  glass,  so  that  when  you  so  wish  you  may  see  the  bees 
as  they  pass  in  and  out.  It  is  best  to  keep  this  covered 
except  when  you  wish  to  learn  something  of  their  doings, 
as  bees  do  not  like  to  be  watched  at  their  work;  that  is, 
you  must  not  "keep  tab"  on  them  too  closely. 

In  the  study  of  ants  the  very  best  thing  to  do  is  to 
find  an  ant  hill  and  dig  down  under  the  surface,  a  little 
at  a  time.  If  you  do  not  know  how,  any  small  boy  will 
tell  you.  One  way,  possibly,  in  addition  to  what  he  will 
tell  you,  is  to  make  an  attempt  at  a  vertical  section  of 
the  ant  hill  by  digging  carefully  down  to  one  side  of  the 
center  so  as  to  discover  all  that  one  may  by  so  doing- 
approaching  carefully  the  center  of  the  hill.  When  you 
have  dug  away  most  of  the  earth  up  to  this  middle  line 
and  have  found  how  deep  the  nest  goes  down,  then  with 
a  spade  or  a  large,  sharp  knife  cut  down  from  the  exit 
tube,  straight  down  to  the  bottom.  This  will  be  likely 
to  cut  open  a  number  of  the  chambers  as  well  as  some  of 
the  galleries  and  show  a  number  of  facts  concerning  the 
use  of  the  chambers,  the  modes  of  ant  activity,  and  their 
behavior  under  disturbing  circumstances.  When  a  par- 


FIELD    WORK    ON  HYMENOPTERA.  14! 

ticularly  good  view  of  a  gallery,  or  room,  and  the  galleries 
leading  from  it  is  obtained,  make  a  picture  of  it.  Do 
you  find  ants  going  both  ways  in  some  of  the  passages? 
Look  for  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae;  and  also  discover  the 
granaries  if  possible.  You  may  know  them  by  the  seeds 
and  other  vegetable  matter  stored  in  them.  Do  you 
find  any  insects  in  the  granaries  that  might  be  serving 
as  food  ?  Do  any  of  the  ants  exhibit  any  care  for  the 
young  when  you  disturb  the  nest  ?  Is  this  care  evidently 
the  care  for  some  particular  ones  among  the  immature  ants, 
or  is  it  care  for  the  welfare  of  the  colony  as  a  whole?  It 
will  be  quite  a  triumph  if  you  are  able  to  find  any  of  the 
mothers  of  the  colony.  The  ant  mother  is  larger  and 
thicker- bodied  than  are  either  the  male  ants  or  the 
female  workers;  besides,  when  you  have  a  nest  under 
examination,  the  males  will  not  be  likely  to  be  living,  as 
you  know  that  the  males  do  not  as  a  rule  live  long  beyond 
the  starting  of  the  ant  home. 

Sir  John  Lubbock,  the  eminent  English  student  of 
insects,  and  especially  of  ants,  bees,  and  wasps,  gives 
instructions  as  to  how  to  arrange  a  nest  for  ants  so  that 
their  proceedings  can  be  watched  for  one's  self.  He  says : 
' '  After  trying  various  plans,  I  found  the  most  convenient 
plan  was  to  keep  them  in  nests  consisting  of  two  plates 
of  common  window  glass  about  ten  inches  square,  and 
at  a  distance  apart  of  from  one-tenth  to  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  (in  fact,  just  sufficiently  deep  to  allow  the  ants 
freedom  of  motion) ,  with  slips  of  wood  around  the  edges, 
the  intermediate  space  being  filled  up  with  fine  earth. 
If  the  interval  between  the  glass  plates  was  too  great 
the  ants  were  partly  hidden  by  the  earth,  but  when  the 
distance  between  the  glass  plates  was  properly  regulated 
with  reference  to  the  size  of  the  ants  they  were  open  to 


142 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


close  observation,  and  had  no  opportunity  to  conceal 
themselves.  Ants,  however,  very  much  dislike  light  in 
their  nests,  probably  because  it  makes  them  think  them- 
selves insecure,  and  I  always  therefore  kept  the  nests 
covered  over,  except  when  under  actual  examination. 
I  found  it  convenient  to  have  one  side  of  the  nest  formed 
by  a  loose  slip  of  wood,  and  at  one  corner  I  left  a  small 
door.  These  glass  nests  I  either  kept  in  shallow  boxes 
with  loose  glass  covers  resting  on  baize,  which  admitted 
enough  air,  and  yet  was  impervious  to  the  ants,  or  on 
stands  surrounded  either  with  water  or  with  fur  with  the 
hairs  pointing  downward.  Some  of  these  nests  I 
arranged  on  stands,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  A  A  is  an 
upright  post  fixed  on  a  base  B  B.  C  C  is  a  square  plat- 
form of  wood  around  which  runs  a  ditch  of  water.  Above 
are  six  nests,  D,  each  lying  on  a  platform,  E,  which  could 
be  turned  for  facility  of  observation,  as  shown  in  the 
dotted  lines  D'  and  E'.  Thus  the  ants  had  considerable 
range,  as  they  could  wander  as  far  as  the  water  ditch.  The 
object  of  having  the  platform  C  C  larger  than  the  supports 
of  the  nest  was  that  if  the  ants  fell,  as  often  happened, 
they  were  within  the  water  boundary,  and  were  able  to 
return  home.  This  plan  answered  fairly  well  and  saved 
space,  but  it  did  not  quite  fulfill  my  hopes,  as  the  ants 
were  so  pugnacious  that  I  was  obliged  to  be  very  careful 
which  nests  were  placed  on  the  same  stand.  (Fig.  58.) 

"Of  course  it  was  impossible  to  force  the  ants  into 
these  glass  nests.  On  the  other  hand,  when  once  the 
right  way  is  known  it  is  easy  to  induce  them  to  go  in. 
When  I  wished  to  start  a  new  nest  I  dug  one  up  and 
brought  home  the  ants,  earth,  etc.,  all  together.  I  then 
put  them  over  one  of  my  artificial  nests  on  one  of  the 
platforms  surrounded  by  a  moat  of  water.  Gradually 


FIELD    WORK    ON  HYMENOPTERA. 


the  outer  earth  dried  up,  while  that  between  the  two 
plates  of  glass,  being  protected  from  evaporation,  retained 
its  moisture.  Under  these  circumstances  the  ants  found 
it  more  suitable  to  their  requirements,  and  gradually 
deserted  the  drier  mould 

A 

outside,  which  I  removed 
by  degrees. 

1 1  Even  between  the 
two  plates  of  glass  the 
earth  gradually  dried  up, 
and  I  had  to  supply  arti- 
ficial rain  from  time  to 
time." 

A  bumblebee's  nest 
ought  by  all  means  to  be 
discovered  if  it  is  a  possi- 
ble thing  to  do  so.  If  a 
bee  of  this  sort  is  found  on 
a  flower,  occasionally  one 
is  fortunate  enough  to  be 
able  to  trace  it  to  its  home 
nest.  Especially  is  this  true  if  you  sight  the  bumblebee 
late  in  the  afternoon,  when  she  is  making  her  last  trip 
for  the  day.  While  you  have  the  bumblebee  under  obser- 
vation, discover  whether  the  two  sorts  of  bees,  honey  and 
bumble,  like  the  same  flowers.  Do  they  seem  to  be 
equally  burdened  with  the  responsibilities  of  life  ? 

Do  you  regard  the  life  where  the  bumblebee  mother 
works  for  the  good  of  her  own  family  and  that  alone,  as 
beneficial  with  respect  to  life  as  a  whole  with  its  varied 
relationships  of  many  kinds  of  animals  of  various  degrees 
of  efficiency,  as  is  the  life  of  the  community  bees,  where 
each  individual  contributes  cheerfully  and  efficiently 


r  t 

FIG.  58. — Ants'  artificial  nest. 
(After  Lubbock.) 


144  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

to  the  output  of  work  of  the  whole  community?  This  is 
much  like  a  similar  question  which  might  be  put  concerning 
our  own  effectiveness  in  the  world.  No  one  can  do  his  best 
for  others  if  he  keeps  in  a  corner  by  himself  and  refuses  to 
help  right  cheerfully  in  the  work  of  the  big,  busy  world. 

Wasps  are  more  difficult  to  study  on  account  of  their 
irritability  and  their  effective  stings.  Still,  if  you  can 
find  a  small  nest  of  a  paper  wasp,  watch  till  you  are  sure 
that  the  wasp  mother  is  not  at  home ;  then  detach  it  from 
its  fastenings  and  put  it  into  a  box  which  has  previously 
had  a  square  of  wire  netting  set  into  the  lid.  If  the  lid 
is  pasteboard,  cut  out  a  piece  and  sew  in  the  netting;  if 
the  lid  is  wooden,  saw  out  a  piece  and  tack  on  the  netting. 
This  will  enable  you  to  see  what  is  going  on  in  the  nest. 
Until  some  adults  have  emerged,  you  may  examine  the 
nest  freely.  You  may  find  some  of  the  cells  open;  this 
means  that  the  eggs  formerly  in  those  cells  have  developed 
into  adults  which  have  gnawed  their  way  out  into  the 
outer  world.  If  there  are  some  cells  still  smoothly  capped, 
play  wasp  on  one  of  them  by  carefully  cutting  the  cap 
around  its  edge,  leaving  a  small  strip  for  a  hinge.  Raise 
this  lid  and  look  inside.  If  there  is  an  egg,  notice  what 
food  is  left  beside  it.  If  it  is  a  larva,  notice  its  appearance 
and  how  it  eats.  Does  the  paper  wasp  mother  go  back 
repeatedly  to  feed  her  young  larva?  If  it  is  a  pupa,  lift  it 
out  carefully  and  examine  it  on  all  sides  to  see  how  far  the 
adult  organs  are  developed.  By  watching  the  place  where 
the  nest  hung  you  may  be  able  to  discover  and  watch  the 
behavior  of  the  wasp  mother  when  she  comes  back  and 
finds  her  nest  gone,  and  what  she  does  after  the  discovery. 
Any  galls  found  on  weeds,  bushes,  or  trees  are 
interesting  for  study.  There  are  many  insects  that  form 
galls :  mites,  moths,  gnats,  and  some  small  beetles,  as  well 


FIELD    WORK    ON  HYMENOPTERA.  145 

as  gallflies.  The  green  galls,  if  closed,  are  most  probably 
made  by  gallflies;  besides  this,  when  you  cut  them  open, 
if  the  gall  is  due  to  a  gallfly,  there  will  be  found  inside 
nothing  save  the  immature  larval  or  pupal  hymenopter- 
ous  gallfly;  while  in  galls  made  by  some  of  the  other 
gall-forming  agents,  it  is  the  mother  that  enters  the  gall 
and  rears  her  young  within  its  increasing  structure,  and 
there  will  be  found  the  opening  by  which  the  escape  of  the 
insect  has  been  made. 

Suggestions  for  the  study  of  the  ichneumons  may  be 
found  in  the  discussion  of  the  big  Thalessa  and  the 
Pigeon  Horntail.  If  a  caterpillar  outwardly  in  good 
condition  be  found  dead  on  a  leaf,  pick  off  the  leaf  with 
the  caterpillar  on  it,  and  store  it  in  some  box  with  a  good 
lid;  put  a  label  on  the  lid  and  also  on  the  box  so  that  it 
may  not  be  lost.  Look  often  at  the  caterpillar  for 
developments.  If  the  parasitic  insects  have  not  already 
escaped  you  will  be  able  to  trace  the  life  history  of  the 
parasites  from  the  larvae,  which  will  appear,  possibly, 
beyond  the  body  wall  of  the  caterpillar  when  they  have 
attained  their  larval  maturity  and  go  through  the  pupal 
transformation.  And  some  day  you  may  find  some  tiny 
winged  creatures  flying  about  in  the  box  when  you  open 
it.  When  these  do  appear  they  should  be  given  their 
liberty  out  of  doors  to  repeat  the  beneficial  work  of  their 
kind.  Whenever  you  have  learned  to  know  a  harmful 
insect,  miss  no  opportunity  to  kill  it;  in  so  doing  you 
destroy  not  only  that  insect,  but  also  all  of  its  descendants. 
When  you  learn  to  know  a  beneficial  insect,  and  this 
may  mean  one  or  more  of  the  enemies  of  the  first  sort, 
be  sure  that  neither  you  nor  anyone  else  harms  it;  you 
will  thus  be  able  to  avail  yourself  of  the  good  done  by  it 
and  by  all  of  its  descendants  left  unharmed. 


HYMENOPTERA. 
CHARACTERISTICS. 

i.  Four  membranous  wings,  bare  of  scales. 

Bees. 

Body  thick-hairy. 

Legs  usually  thickly  clothed  with  hairs. 

Wasps. 

Body  smooth,  constricted  at  front  of  abdomen, 
or  pedunculate. 

Ants. 

Body  smooth,  not  pedunculate,  but  one  of  the 
abdominal  segments  is  expanded  to  form  a 
scale  or  button-like  knot  next  to  the  thorax. 

Ichneumon  flies. 

Abdomen  curved  and,  in  some  of  the  smaller 
ichneumons,  pedunculate. 

Thalessa  has  three  long  hairs  (they  may  look 
as  if  they  were  one)  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen. 

Sawflies. 

Head  and  thorax  wide  where  they  join  the 
abdomen;  the  female  bears  a  saw-like  organ  at 
the  end  of  the  abdomen. 

Horn  tails. 

Head  and  thorax  wide,  and  abdomen  broad  and 
usually  cylindrical;  abdomen  bears  a  spine- 
like  organ;  insects  large. 

Gallflies. 

Abdomen  compressed  and  pedunculate  by  the 
first  abdominal  segment;  the  second  and  third 
abdominal  segments  much  larger  than  the 
other  segments;  insects  small. 


HYMENOPTERA. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  sawflies,  the  gallflies,  the 
ichneumon  flies,  the  horntails,  the  wasps,  the  bees,  and 
the  ants. 

Among  the  members  of  this  order  are  to  be  found 
the  wonderful  examples  of  community  life  which  are  not 
equaled  elsewhere  in  the  animal  kingdom.  And  yet, 
while  the  community  life  of  the  social  bees,  ants,  and  wasps 
is  certainly  matter  for  wonder,  the  life  of  the  solitary 
wasps  and  bees  is  not  less  wonderful  in  its  wealth  of 
economy,  scheme,  and  device. 

The  order  furnishes  also  the  most  interesting  exam- 
ples of  parasitism  in  the  animal  kingdom.  According  to 
Fiske,  the  American  tent  caterpillar  is  liable  to  be  para- 
sitized by  no  fewer  than  twelve  species  of  Hymenoptera. 
Six  of  these  primary  parasites  may  be  parasitized  by 
secondary  parasites,  also  hymenopters.  Four  of  the 
secondary  parasites  are  in  turn  parasitized  by  tertiary 
parasites ;  and  one  of  these  tertiary  parasites  may  be 
parasitized  by  an  hymenopterous  parasite  of  the  fourth 
rank.  Not  much  chance  for  the  tent  caterpillar  in  the 
midst  of  all  this! 

"  Big  fleas  have  little  fleas 
Upon  their  backs  to  bite  'em; 
And  these  in  turn  have  lesser  fleas, 
And  so  on,  ad  infinitum." 

All  members  of  the  order  have  four  clear,  membranous 
wings  destitute  of  scales.  The  front  wings  are  larger  than 
the  hind  wings  and  bear  the  brunt  of  the  flight  activities ; 

149 


150  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

and  all  four  wings  are  provided  with  comparatively  few 
branched  veins. 

You  may  have  found  caterpillars  with  their  bodies 
quite  thickly  set  with  tiny  white  silken  cocoons.  These 
cocoons  mark  the  third  life  stage  in  the  life  of  some 
parasitic  hymenopter,  usually  one  of  the  ichneumon  flies, 
which  laid  her  eggs  on  the  body  of  this  caterpillar,  and 
the  greedy  larvae  hatching  from  the  eggs,  bore  through  the 
skin  of  the  host,  and  make  many  a  meal  off  the  protesting 
caterpillar,  which  finds  it  difficult  to  eat  enough  for  itself 
and  for  all  its  uninvited  guests  also.  The  caterpillar 
may  still  be  crawing  about,  feebly  trying  to  find  a  juicy 
leaf  and  perhaps  wondering  why  it  feels  so  queer  inside. 
But  more  likely  it  is  just  dead  or  dying,  though  some  of 
them  do  manage  to  pupate  in  the  face  of  such  enormous 
odds.  The  mother  ichneumon  usually  lays  her  eggs  at  or 
near  the  end  of  the  caterpillar  stage,  and  the  fly  has  an 
unusually  short  period  of  immaturity. 

The  effectiveness  of  these  parasites  as  aids  to  man,  as 
well  as  of  all  parasites  in  general,  depends  upon  their  not 
being  parasitized  themselves,  and  also  upon  their  not 
becoming  so  numerous  as  to  eat  up  all  the  available  cater- 
pillars, or  other  hosts,  within  reach.  If  the  ichneumon 
should  do  the  latter,  the  succeeding  season  would  witness 
a  decided  decrease  in  its  own  numbers,  while  the  few 
remaining  caterpillars  would  have  a  chance  to  increase. 

Another  of  the  ichneumon  flies,  the  big  Thalessa,  is 
an  interesting  as  well  as  a  decidedly  beneficial  insect.  The 
Pigeon  Horntail  is  accustomed  to  boring  into  trunks  of 
box  elder,  maple,  or  sycamore  to  lay  its  eggs.  The  larva 
hatching  from  the  egg,  eats  or  tunnels  its  way  into  the 
tree  through  the  bark,  and  then  turns  downward  along  the 
inner  wood  of  the  tree,  eating  as  it  goes.  It  then  pupates, 


HYMENOPTERA.  151 

and  at  the  expiration  of  its  pupal  stage,  intends  to  gnaw 
its  way  out  to  freedom,  air,  and  sunshine;  there  to  repeat 
the  life  cycle  of  its  parents.  But  the  big  Thalessa  seems 
to  know  where  to  find  this  fat,  juicy,  horntail  grub,  and 
she  stops  above  where  it  is  lying,  deep  down  under  the 
bark  of  the  tree,  throws  her  long  ovipositor  in  a  wide  loop 
over  her  back,  downward  into  the  tree  trunk,  and  begins 


FIG.  59. — Oviposition  of  Thalessa  lunator.     (Natual  size.     Folsom,  after  Riley.} 

boring  straight  down.  How  the  mother  ichneumon 
knows  the  horntail  grub  is  under  the  bark  cannot  be 
determined;  it  is  the  manifestation  of  a  marvelous  power 
to  locate  that  which  cannot  be  seen.  You  and  I  might 
find  the  horntail  tunnel  in  the  outer  bark,  but  we  should 
be  unable  to  tell  which  way  the  larva  had  turned  on  its 
way  inward.  (Fig.  60.)  The  writer  found  in  the  summer 
of  1908,  four  of  these  horntails  unsuspectingly  drilling  into 
a  box  elder  trunk ;  while  around  on  the  other  side  of  the 
same  tree  were  two  of  the  Thalessas,  also  engaged  in  drill- 
ing (but  not  so  unsuspectingly) ,  providing  for  the  wants  of 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


the  young  ichneumons,  whose  one  mission  in  life  would 
be  to  dispose  of  at  least  one  young  horntail  apiece. 

All  members  of  the  order  have  four  clear,  membran- 
ous wings,  destitute  of  scales.  The  front  wings  are  larger 
than  the  hind  wings  and  bear  the  brunt  of  the  flight 
activities.  In  the  butterflies  and  the  moths,  the  wings 
on  each  side  of  the  body  are  fastened  together  either  by  a 
hook,  by  bristles,  or  by  a  pronounced  curve  of  the  front 

border  of  the  hind  wing. 
The  beetles,  the  grasshop- 
pers, and  the  bugs  use 
only  one  pair  of  wings  for 
flying,  hence  do  not  need 
to  provide  for  the  interac- 
tion of  the  wings.  But  in 
the  hymenopters  we  come 
again  to  insects  with  four 
wings,  all  used  for  flight; 
and  some  means  of  syn- 
chronous action  is  neces- 
sary. If  a  honey-bee's 
wings  are  examined  care- 
fully it  will  be  seen  that  it 
is  very  difficult  to  separate  the  small  hind  wing  from  the 
larger  front  wing.  With  a  good  hand  lens,  better  with 
the  microscope,  there  will  be  found  a  line  of  hooks  fasten- 
ing the  hind  wing  to  the  front  wing,  fitting  over  a  strong 
vein  at  the  hind  margin  of  the  front  wing. 

The  first  abdominal  segment  is  usually  fused  with 
the  thorax,  and  that  means  that  the  small  segment  which 
forms  the  articulation  between  the  thorax  and  the  abdo- 
men is  usually  the  second  abdominal  segment.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  wasps  and  the  ants. 


FIG.  60. — The  pigeon  horntail,  Tremex 
columba.  A,  imago;  B,  larva  (with  para- 
sitic larva  of  Thalessa  attached).  (Nat- 
ural size.  Folsom,  after  Riley.) 


HYMENOPTERA.  153 

The  mouth  parts  of  the  honey-bee  are  fitted  both  for 
sucking  nectar  from  flower  cups  and  for  eating  pollen. 
(Fig.  62.)  Many  wasps  eat  pollen.  Ants  are  noted  for 
their  strong  jaws  and  yet  they  are  very  fond  of  sweet 
liquids.  The  so-called  paper  wasps  make  the  paper  for 
their  nests  by  chewing  bits  of  bark  or  wood  to  a  pulp. 


FIG.  61. 


FIG.  62. 


FIG.  61. — Mouth  parts  of  honey-bee,  with  right  maxilla  and  mandible 
removed,  md,  mandible;  mx,  maxilla;  mxp,  maxillary  palpus;  mxl,  maxillary 
lobe;  st,  stipes;  cd,  cardo  of  maxilla;  li,  labium;  sm,  submentum  of  labium; 
momentum  of  labium;  pg,  paraglossa;  gl,  glossa;  lip.  labial  palpus.  (Kellogg.) 

FIG.  62. — Tongue  of  honey-bee,  Apis  mellifera;  p,  protecting  bristles;  s, 
terminal  spoon;  /,  taste  setae.  (Folsom,  after  Williston.) 


The  gallfly  larva  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  gall,  which  yields  it 
the  most  nourishing  of  plant  juices.  Hence,  it  is  evident 
that,  whatever  the  generic  peculiarity  of  the  mouth  parts, 
all  members  of  the  order  can  either  bite,  or  suck  or  lap; 
and  most  of  them  have  both  methods  of  feeding.  In  ad- 
dition, the  honey-bee  has  her  mandibles  so  shaped  as  to 
make  effective  trowels  for  moulding  the  wax  to  make 


154 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


the  delicate  walls  of  the  comb,  or  for  manipulating  the 
propolis  to  repair  the  comb  in  case  of  accident. 

The  ovipositor  of  the  females  throughout  the  order 
presents  some  curious  modifications.  In  the  case  of  the 
horntails  and  the  big  Thalessa,  we  have  seen  that  the 
ovipositor  is  modified  into  a  drill  for  depositing  the  eggs 
under  the  tree  bark.  Among  the  saw-flies,  the  ovipositor 
serves  as  a  saw  to  cut  into  young  stems  or  leaves  in  order 
to  deposit  the  eggs  therein.  Among  most  of  the  ichneu- 
mons, the  gallflies,  and  practically  all  the  parasitic 
hymenopters,  the  ovipositor  is  used  as  an  awl  to  prick 
a  hole  in  a  leaf,  a  stem,  or  the  epidermis  of  some  caterpillar 
in  which  to  deposit  the  eggs.  The  queens — colony 
mothers — and  the  workers — infertile  females — of  the 
wasps  and  the  bees,  and  the  stinging  ants,  all  have  the 
ovipositor  formed  to  serve  as  a  sting.  This  sting  is  the 
most  effective  means  of  defense  possessed  by  insects. 

This  last  fact  presents  a  curious  anomaly  among  the 
members  of  the  animal  kingdom,  at  least  among  the  higher 
orders.  It  is  usually  the  male  that  is  the  larger  and 
endowed  in  such  a  way  that  he  is  the  defender  of  the 
home  and  the  offspring.  Among  the  lower  groups,  after 
the  appearance  of  the  male  as  a  factor  in  the  repro- 
duction of  the  species,  it  is  the  female  that  is  the  larger 
and  also  the  defender  of  the  home  and  the  offspring 
where  there  is  a  definite  place  of  abode.  In  the  order  of 
the  Hymenoptera,  which  is  considered  well  up  toward  the 
highest  of  the  insects,  if  not  at  the  head,  we  still  see  the 
male  in  the  place  of  subordination;  especially  is  this  true 
among  the  community  hymenopters,  the  highest  of  the 
hymenopterous  families. 

The  hymenopters  all  have  complete  metamorphosis, 
and  the  larvae  are  peculiarly  dependent  upon  the  parents 


HYMENOPTERA.  155 

for  food  and  safety.  With  the  solitary  wasps  and  the 
bees,  the,  food  is  stored  in  the  locule  in  which  the  larva 
hatches.  The  same  is  true  of  the  gallfly,  where  the 
sap  of  the  wounded  plant  furnishes  food  for  the  gallfly 
maggot.  The  parasitic  ichneumons  place  their  eggs 
in  situations  of  abundant  food  supply  for  the  hatching 
grubs.  The  young  hymenopter  is  unable  to  provide  food 
for  itself,  but  grows  up  on  the  food  which  the  careful 
mother  provides.  This  dependence  reaches  its  climax 
in  the  community  wasps,  bees,  and  ants,  especially  in  the 
ants.  Here  certain  workers  bring  food  to  the  larvae 
continually  until  pupation  takes  place;  and  even  the 
pupae  are  carefully  carried  about  to  places  of  warmth 
or  safety. 

Bees. 

There  are  several  sorts  of  flies  that  closely  resemble 
bees  in  their  hairy  bodies,  shape,  and  general  appearance, 
but  will  be  found  to  have  only  one  pair  of  wings.  The 
clear- winged  Hemaris  among  the  moths  looks  very  much 
like  a  bumblebee  with  its  black  and  yellow  hairy  body, 
but  its  wings  always  have  some  scales  on  them.  The 
bees,  while  not  very  difficult  to  recognize,  may  always  be 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  scales  on  their  wings,  by 
the  presence  of  feathery  or  branched  hairs  on  head  and 
thorax,  and  the  enlargement  of  the  mandibles  for  trowel- 
ing wax  or  for  tunneling  in  wood  or  ground. 

The  antennae  of  the  bees  are  bent  near  the  head,  and 
their  terminal  segments  are  provided  with  numerous 
sense-pits  and  papillae;  these  pits  are  supposed  to  be 
organs  of  taste  and  feeling,  and  they  also  probably  serve 
the  purpose  of  olfactory  organs.  The  sense  of  smell 
reaches  its  highest  development  in  the  community 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


hymenopters;  and  the  known  ways  in  which  the  members 
of  the  group  use  this  sense  is  truly  wonderful,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  marvelous  actions  in  which  we  can  only 
conjecture  that  smell  plays  a  part.  You  have  known 
bees  to  find  honey  which  it  was  impossible  for  them  to 

have  seen,  and  which  they  must 
have  found  by  their  sense  of 
smell.  Ants  will  crawl  long  dis- 
tances toward  a  bait  of  honey. 
Ants  know  each  other  and  the 
home  nest  and  the  rival  commu- 
nities by  the  sense  of  smell. 

A  honeybee  community  con- 
sists usually  of  about  ten  thou- 
sand individuals  in  the  winter, 
to  about  fifty  thousand  in  the 
summer,  one  of  which  is  a  fertile 
female,  the  queen.  Fifty  to 
eighty,  or  several  hundred  of  the 
total  number  are  drones,  and  the 
remainder  are  workers,  that  is, 
females  for  the  most  part  incapa- 
ble of  laying  eggs,  though  there 
have  been  known  cases  of  egg- 
laying  by  a  worker  bee.  These 
workers  attend  to  the  work  of  the 

community  strictly.  There  is  no  division  of  interests 
here;  the  interest  of  one  is  the  interest  of  the  community. 
An  exception  to  this  oneness  of  aim  must  be  made 
in  the  case  of  the  drones.  These  individuals  neither 
labor  at  any  given  part  of  the  whole  task,  nor  do  they 
even  provide  food  for  themselves.  Not  even  a  job  as 
policeman  of  the  community  attracts  them,  and  this  is  a 


FIG.  63. — Head  and  mouth 
parts  of  honeybee,  much  en- 
larged. Note  the  short,  trowel- 
like  mandibles  for  moulding 
wax,  and  the  proboscis  for  suck- 
ing flower  nectar.  (Kellogg.} 


HYMENOPTERA.  157 

position  much  sought  after  in  human  metropolitan  com- 
munities. They  are  rightly  named  drones,  staying 
within  the  hive  unless  pushed  out,  living  off  the  labors 
of  the  foraging  workers,  profiting  throughout  their  short, 
lazy  lives  at  the  expense  of  the  industrious.  And  this 
seemingly  inexcusable  waste  in  an  organization  so 
economically  ordered,  is  solely  for  the  purpose  of  providing 
for  the  propagation  of  the  bee  kind.  It  finds  its  counter- 
part in  the  cornstalk  among  the  plants,  which  makes 
thirty  thousand  grains  of  pollen  in  its  tassel  in  order 
that  perhaps  three  hundred  grains  may  be  useful  in 
producing  the  full,  ripe  ear  of  corn.  Here  is  a  valuable 
lesson  for  us  human  workers  at  our  tasks.  Nature  does 
not  grudge  the  effort;  above  everything  she  assures 
herself  of  the  accomplishment  of  her  purpose — rich 
effort,  sure  reward! 

These  drones  wait  for  the  advent  of  the  queen,  in 
order  to  take  part  in  the  mating  flight.  All  the  drones 
may  start  out  with  the  queen;  but  gradually  the  weaker- 
winged  individuals  fall  back,  leaving  the  strongest  drone 
to  follow  the  queen  high  into  the  air.  As  the  result  of 
this  union  come  the  hundreds  of  eggs  which  the  queen 
will  lay  during  the  time  that  she  remains  the  mother 
of  the  colony.  But  the  victor  drone  perishes  at  the 
moment  of  victory,  having  actually  given  his  own  life 
for  the  lives  of  the  colony  to  be. 

As  to  the  mode  of  formation  of  a  colony:  in  some  of 
the  comb  cells  reserved  for  that  purpose  the  queen  from 
some  older  community  lays  fertilized  eggs,  one  in  each  cell, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  workers  are  busy  storing  other 
cells  with  honey  and  pollen.  In  three  days  these  eggs 
hatch  into  tiny  soft-bodied  grubs.  These  are  fed  by  the 
nurse-workers  with  honey  and  with  bee  jelly.  Honey  is 


158  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

not  flower  nectar,  but  is  made  from  it  and  holds  much 
less  of  water  than  does  the  nectar  when  it  is  sipped  from 
the  flower  by  the  bee.  Some  bee  keepers  insist  that  the 
nurse-workers  feed  these  first  larvae  on  honey  and  bee 
bread  alone.  Bee  bread  is  made  from  pollen.  If  the 
bee  jelly  is  fed  to  these  first  larvae  its  use  is  discontinued 
after  two  days,  and  then  the  larvae  are  fed  on  honey  and 
bee  bread  for  three  days  longer.  After  these  five  days  of 
feeding,  the  nurse- workers  roll  up  a  mass  of  honey  and 


A  B  c 

FIG.  64. — The    honeybee,  Apis  mellifera.     A,  queen;    B,  drone;    C,  worker. 
(Natural  size.    Folsom.) 

pollen,  and  put  it  beside  the  larva,  which  by  this  time  has 
grown  to  a  considerable  size;  they  then  cap  the  cell  and 
leave  it.  The  larva  eats  a  little  longer,  then  pupates  in 
in  the  cell,  remaining  a  pupa  for  thirteen  days,  after  which 
a  full-grown  bee  appears.  (Fig.  64.)  This  young  bee  stays 
in  the  hive  for  some  days,  sharing  in  the  in-door  work  with 
the  bees  somewhat  older,  serving  as  a  nurse- worker  itself. 
It  would  seem  from  some  observations  that  have  been 
made,  that  only  the  young  bees  are  capable  of  acting  as 
nurse- workers,  and  that  they  become  foraging  or  general 
workers  at  a  more  advanced  stage  of  their  existence.  If 
this  is  true,  then  there  are  no  hard  and  fast  lines  of  caste 
among  the  workers;  all  serve  an  apprenticeship  in  the 


HYMENOPTERA. 


nursery,  and  in  the  kind  of  work  performed  later,  age 
plays  a  part.  This  somewhat  unsettles  the  belief  in  the 
specialization  which  has  been  supposed  to  exist  in  a  bee 
community.  After  numerous  broods  of  workers  have 
been  added  to  the  community  the  workers  build  some 
larger  cells  in  which  the 
queen  lays  some  unfer- 
tilized eggs,  and  from 
these  hatch  the  drones. 
These  larvae  are  fed  by 
the  nurse- workers,  and 
with  the  same  food,  but 
in  this  case  the  larval 
period  lasts  six  days  and 
the  pupal  period  fifteen 
days.  When  the  com- 
munity is  so  large  as  to 
crowd  the  hive,  at  least 
that  is  the  way  we  have 
of  saying  what  the  bee 
has  a  finer  instinct  for 
knowing,  the  comb- 
workers  tear  down  some 
of  the  cells,  usually,  and 
build  up  a  few  giant 
cells  or  queen  cells.  They  may  build  them  on  the  outside 
of  the  comb  cells,  and  they  are  usually  at  right  angles  with 
the  other  cells.  (Fig.  65.) 

From  what  source  comes  this  impulse  for  building 
queen  cells  is  not  known.  At  any  rate,  their  being  built 
is  not  known  early  in  the  history  of  the  colony  when  the 
hive  is  scantily  filled  with  bees.  Bees  seem  unable  to 
count,  and  it  would  be  equally  strange  to  accredit  them 


FIG.  65. — Portion  of  brood  comb  of  honey- 
bee showing  one  queen  cell. 


l6o  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

with  reasoning  power  by  which  they  might  know 
when  to  build  queen  cells.  It  would  hardly  seem  that 
the  queen  would  give  the  signal  herself ;  for  the  appearance 
of  a  new  queen  brings  her  two  possibilities  which  she  must 
face — the  end  of  her  reign  over  a  united  community,  or 
death — generally  the  latter.  At  any  rate,  the  stimulus 
is  given  and  the  eggs  are  laid.  Occasionally 'the  cell  is 
built  up  around  an  egg  already  laid.  These  are  the  royal 
larvae  which  hatch  from  these  eggs,  and  each  is  fed  by 
several  nurse- workers  in  constant  attendance,  feeding 
bee  jelly  for  the  five  larval  days.  After  these  five  days 
of  constant  feeding,  the  nurses  place  a  mass  of  bee  jelly 
beside  the  old  larva  and  cap  the  cell,  and  in  seven  days 
more,  there  appears  the  full-grown  queen.  This  bee  jelly, 
on  which  the  royal  larva  is  fed,  is  a  highly  metamorphosed 
honey  product  elaborated  in  the  body  of  the  worker  and 
fed  to  the  larva  by  regurgitation.  So  far  as  known,  it  is 
the  feeding  which  makes  the  difference  in  the  individuals 
resulting  from  the  two  fertilized  eggs,  the  one  in  the  worker 
cell  and  the  one  in  the  queen  cell.  The  royal  larva  is  fed 
longer,  constantly,  and  with  richer  food  than  is  the  worker 
larva. 

The  appearance  of  the  queen  is  heralded  by  a  curious 
piping  noise  which  the  old  queen  answers,  and  the  battle 
is  on.  If  the  old  queen  attempts  to  attack  the  young 
queen  the  workers  usually  protect  the  young  queen,  at 
least  a  portion  of  them  may  so  decide  to  do;  this  may 
result  in  the  migrating  of  a  portion  of  the  hive  with  the 
old  queen  leaving  the  new  queen  in  possession  of  the 
remaining  bees  in  the  hive.  If  more  queens  than  one 
issue  at  one  time,  there  may  follow  a  series  of  battles  in 
which  it  is  decided  which  one  among  them  is  to  stay 
with  the  hive ;  or  there  will  be  a  series  of  swarmings  which 


HYMENOPTERA.  l6l 

will  divide  the  community  into  swarms,  one  for  each 
queen  surviving.  Sometimes  the  workers  interfere  in  a 
possible  battle  of  the  queens  and  kill  either  the  old  or  the 
new  queen  by  gathering  in  a  tight  ball  about  her  and 
suffocating  her.  The  sting  of  the  worker  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
used  against  the  queen;  and  the  queen  does  not  use  her 
sting  save  in  one  of  these  battles  royal  against  one  of  her 
rivals.  The  matter  having  been  settled,  the  diminished 
community  in  the  hive  sets  about  the  work  of  building 
up  another  community,  while  the  exiled  swarms  do  the 
same  elsewhere.  It  usually  comes  about  in  the  case  of  the 
exiled  swarms  that  some  one  sees  the  swarm  hanging  to 
a  tree  branch  and  uses  his  diligence  to  secure  it  and  put 
it  into  another  hive ;  but  occasionally  one  of  these  swarms 
escapes  and  makes  itself  a  nest  in  some  tree  and  the  bees 
become  wild  again,  as  they  were  originally. 

With  the  bumblebees,  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  the 
nest  is  abandoned;  none  stays  in  it.  The  old  queen 
mother,  the  drones,  and  the  workers  die,  leaving  the  young 
queen  to  winter  through  in  some  sheltered  situation. 
Such  colonies  are  not  permanent,  nor  do  they  tend 
strongly  toward  the  persistence  or  the  spread  of  the  species. 
Among  the  honeybees,  the  many  generations  of  workers 
hatched  during  the  summer  season,  the  providing  of  the 
overstocked  hive  with  several  queens,  and  the  swarmings 
incident  to  the  growth  of  such  a  brood  colony  tend 
directly  toward  the  persistence  of  the  bee  kind  through 
the  spread  of  enormous  numbers  of  them.  Our  hive 
honeybees  are  all  of  European  stock;  the  native  bees  are 
the  familiar  bumblebees;  while  our  wild  bees  are  swarms 
of  the  domesticated  sorts  which  have  escaped  from  the 
artificial  hive  to  the  wild  life  again,  where  they  build  their 
comb  of  wild  honey  in  some  hollow  tree.  The  swarming 


162 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


of  bees,  bringing  about  the  formation  of  new  colonies, 
plays  an  important  part  in  the  preservation  of  the  bee 
kind.  It  is  quite  as  necessary  that  the  communities  be 
multiplied  as  that  the  numbers  of  the  community  be 
increased. 


CO 


FIG.  66. — Adaptive  modifications  of  the  legs  of  the  worker  honeybee.  A ,  outer 
aspect  of  left  hind  leg;  B,  portion  of  left  middle  leg;  C,  inner  aspect  of  tibio- 
tarsal  region  of  left  hind  leg;  Dt  tibio-tarsal  region  of  left  foreleg;  a,  antenna 
comb;  b,  brush;  c,  coxa;  co,  corbiculum;  /,  femur;  pc,  pollen  combs;  s,  spur; 
sp,  spines;  ss,  spines;  t,  trochanter;  ti,  tibia;  v,  velum;  w,  wax  pincers;  1-5,  tarsal 
segments;  i,  metatarsus,  or  planta.  (Folsom.) 

Some  of  the  industries  of  the  hive  are  wax-making, 
comb-building,  honey-making,  repairing,  garbage-collect- 
ing, cleaning,  warming,  and  ventilating  the  hive,  sentinel- 
keeping,  water-carrying,  nursing,  and  fighting. 


HYMENOPTERA.  163 

Of  the  honeybees,  the  legs  at  the  base,  the  thorax, 
and  the  abdomen  are  covered  with  flexible  branching 
hairs  which  are  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  up  the  sticky 
pollen  from  the  flowers  visited.  When  the  body  surface 
is  pretty  well  loaded,  these  pollen  grains  are  combed 
out  into  the  pollen  bags  on  the  outer  side  of  each  hind  leg. 
If  you  watch  one  of  the  foraging  bees,  you  may  see  her 
cross  the  hind  legs  and  scrape  the  pollen  grains  into  the 


FIG.  67. — Ventral  aspect  of  worker  honeybee,  showing  the  four  pairs  of  wax 

cralptj         (  T?nl.?n<wi.    n.ftrr  C'hpshirp  ~\ 


scales.     (Folsom,  after 

pollen  bag  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body  by  means  of 
the  pollen  combs  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  hind  legs. 
Arrived  at  the  nest,  the  hind  legs  are  thrust  into  the  cell 
and  the  pollen  load  is  pried  out  by  the  pollen  spur.  This 
spur  is  also  used  in  cleaning  the  wings,  and  is  possessed 
by  the  queen  and  the  drones  also;  but  the  other  pollen 
adaptations  are  possessed  by  the  workers  only. 

In  the  making  of  wax  the  workers  eat  a  large  amount 
of  honey,  then  hang  themselves  together  from  the  ceiling 
of  the  hive  in  a  curtain,  each  bee  clinging  to  the  bee  above 
it  and  the  bees  uppermost  to  the  hive  roof.  These 
wax-workers  seem  to  hang  quietly,  but  they  are  really 
working  very  hard.  They  must  in  some  manner  bring 


164  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

about  the  production  of  wax  by  some  internal  process, 
alimentary  in  its  nature.  At  the  end  of  about  a  day,  as 
the  result  of  this  process,  there  appear  shining  scales  of 
wax  from  between  the  segments  of  the  abdomen.  The 
comb-workers  may  run  about  this  living  curtain,  scraping 
off  the  wax  scales  as  they  appear,  to  be  put  where  they  are 
needed  in  the  building  of  the  comb,  or  the  wax-maker 
may  scrape  off  the  scales  herself.  It  is  not  certainly 
known  just  how  this  is  done. 

The  bees  whose  business  it  is  to  furnish  honey  for  the 
hatching  larvae  drink  nectar.  By  increase  of  body  tem- 
perature, probably,  some  of  the  water  present  in  the 
nectar  is  driven  off,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  volatile 
odors  or  oils  peculiar  to  the  different  flowers  from  which 
the  nectar  was  gathered,  are  driven  off  in  large  measure 
also.  This  honey  is  then  regurgitated  from  the  honey 
stomach  of  the  honey-maker  into  certain  comb  cells  where 
it  is  drawn  upon  by  the  nurse- workers ;  or  if  a  honey-maker, 
on  entering  the  hive,  meets  a  nurse- worker  it  may  there 
give  up  its  nectar  store  to  the  hungry  nurse.  At  times 
the  foraging  bees  bring  in  water,  which  they  probably  get 
from  flowers  while  the  dew  is  on  them,  though  bees  also 
drink  from  bodies  of  water.  This  water  constitutes  part 
of  the  diet  of  the  young  worker  bee. 

Another  substance  is  also  brought  into  the  hive,  the 
resinous  products  of  some  plants;  it  is  called  propolis, 
and  is  used  in  the  repairing  of  cells  or  the  stopping  of 
cracks  in  the  comb,  and  especially  in  making  the  comb 
joints  perfect  and  the  hive  warm  for  the  winter. 

Ants. 

The  ants  have  no  solitary  species,  all  of  the  more  than 
two  thousand  species  living  in  communities.  The  head  of 


HYMENOPTERA.  165 

the  community  seems  not  to  be  in  any  sense  a  director  or 
an  organizer,  but  rather  a  mother  of  the  community. 
An  ant  community  always  includes  winged  males  which 
die  soon  after  their  issuing  from  the  nest  to  take  part  in 
the  mating  flight;  also  winged  females  or  mothers  which 
pull  off  their  wings  immediately  after  this  flight,  and  wing- 
less workers  or  infertile  females.  These  workers  may  be  of 
two  sizes,  though  this  is  not  always  true.  There  are  usu- 
ally the  soldier  workers  with  unusually  large  heads 
and  jaws. 

Taking  the  common  carpenter  ant  as  a  type:  the 
ant  mother  begins  the  colony  alone,  feeding  the  first 
larvae  herself  with  food  which  she  brings  into  the  nest 
before  she  lays  her  eggs.  This  is  according  to  Comstock's 
observations.  After  the  first  brood  comes  to  maturity 
the  nrembers  act  as  foragers  and  nurses  for  the  succeeding 
broods,  and  the  ant  mother  has  nothing  to  do  from  that 
time  forward  except  to  lay  eggs  for  the  community 
increase.  The  nests 'are  built  usually  beneath  the  ground 
surface,  some  being  built  under  stones;  or  you  may  have 
seen  ants  excavating  between  the  stones  of  the  sidewalk, 
popping  into  sight  with  a  crumb  of  soil,  dropping  it  to  roll 
down  the  side  of  the  tiny  mound,  and  scurrying  back  for 
more,  always  more,  as  the  underground  galleries  multiply. 
The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  ant  mother  in  masses  instead 
of  singly  as  in  the  bee  kind;  and  the  larvae  are  white, 
soft,  footless  grubs,  very  tiny  at  first,  but  growing  to 
considerable  size.  They  are  fed  regurgitated  food  or 
fresh  insects  well  chewed,  or  weeds  chewed  up,  or  some 
other  vegetable  food  previously  brought  into  the  nest 
and  stored  in  the  granaries.  Of  some  species  the  larvae 
must  be  fed  for  a  month.  The  pupae  look  light-colored 
and  soft,  but  are  not  fed,  though  they  are  taken  as  much 


l66  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

care  of  as  are  infants  among  the  human  kind.  The 
nurses  must  move  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae  about  in  the 
nest  from  room  to  room,  up  or  down,  as  the  need  may  be 
for  keeping  the  developing  insects  at  the  temperature 
best  for  their  development. 

The  various  ant  industries  may  include  honey- 
gathering  from  plant  lice  or  from  fresh  galls  on  oak  trees. 
This  honey  supplied  by  the  tree  is  a  sweetish  liquid 
exuded  from  the  plant  where  some  insect  has  stung  it  in 
the  act  of  laying  its  egg;  and  the  wounded  plant  is  in 
some  way  influenced  to  secrete  about  the  greedy  larva 
this  sweetish  fluid  which  is  watched  for  by  the  ant, 
licked  up  and  brought  into  the  nest  to  feed  the  young  ants 
during  their  immature  stages.  Among  the  Camponotidae 
an  additional  class  of  workers  must  act  as  honey  jugs,  in 
which  the  honey  brought  in  by  the  foraging  ants  is  stored, 
to  be  served  out  at  some  future  time  on  the  requisition 
of  some  nurse-worker.  Others  have  laid  upon  them 
the  task  of  foraging  for  the  animal  or  vegetable  food 
also  used  in  feeding  the  larvae,  and  eaten  as  well  by  the 
indoor  workers,  the  males,  and  the  ant  mothers.  Have 
you  not  often  seen  two  or  three  ants  tugging  away  at 
some  beetle  or  worm  a  good  deal  larger  than  all  of  them 
put  together,  pushing  and  pulling  all  the  time,  seeming 
to  have  just  one  idea  in  their  stubborn  heads,  that  that 
worm  must  be  got  home  at  any  cost?  The  vegetable 
food  gathered  consists  largely  of  plant  seeds  which  are 
stored  in  the  granaries,  extra  large  chambers  or  galleries. 
The  cleaning  of  the  nest  often  results  in  some  of  these 
seeds  being  brought  out,  and  it  not  infrequently  happens 
that  some  of  them  grow  where  they  are  dropped.  This 
may  account  for  the  ant  fields  and  the  ant  husbandry  so 
often  spoken  of. 


HYMENOPTERA.  167 

The  animal  food  usually  is  some  freshly-killed  insect, 
possibly  killed  by  the  foragers  themselves.  In  one 
instance  the  writer  found  four  of  the  red-brown  pave- 
ment ants  attempting  to  carry  off  one  of  the  common 
ground  beetles  that  had  evidently  been  stepped  upon  by 
some  passer-by.  One  of  its  legs  stuck  out  sidewise  in  such 
a  position  that  it  kept  catching  on  everything,  and  finally 
the  four  ant-draymen  were  brought  up  standing,  with  the 
troublesome  leg  caught  under  a  grass  leaf  lying  on  the 
walk.  Curiously  enough,  the  four  excited  ants  did  not 
resent  or  even  seem  to  notice  when  their  human  friend 
stooped  down  and  poked  the  beetle  around  so  as  to  free  its 
body ;  but  off  the  four  started  with  their  load,  as  triumph- 
antly as  if  they  had  done  the  thing  themselves. 

An  ant  nest,  such  as  may  be  found  in  dooryards  or 
fields,  may  extend  down  two  or  three  feet  below  the 
ground  surface,  and  contains  scores  of  galleries  with 
narrower  passages  connecting,  more  intricate  than  the 
famous  catacombs,  and  taxing  the  ingenuity  of  even  an 
ant  to  find  the  way  to  the  surface.  There  is  but '  one 
opening  to  the  nest.  At  first  there  is  but  one  ant  mother, 
and  the  nest  is  small;  but  as  the  broods  multiply  the 
nest  may  become  enormously  enlarged.  In  an  old  ant 
community  there  are  usually  many  ant  mothers.  The 
males  and  the  females  of  a  young  ant  community,  or  of 
any  branch  community,  come  out  of  the  pupae  cases 
winged;  and  their  first  feat  is  the  accomplishment  of  the 
nuptial  flight  or  the  marriage  of  the  ants.  Flying  ants 
are  not  especially  agile,  and  are  frequently  eaten  in  large 
numbers  by  insectivorous  birds;  but  such  females  as 
survive,  pull  off  their  own  wings  and  scurry  underground, 
usually  returning  to  the  nest  from  which  they  took  their 
flight,  though  they  may  seek  a  new  location.  The  males 


l68  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

usually  fall  to  the  ground,  where  they  may  fall  a  prey 
to  any  watchful  sparrow. 

The  ant  colony  is  practically  perpetual,  owing  to  the 
facts  that  branch  colonies  are  added  indefinitely  to  the 
parent  colony,  and  that  the  ant  mothers  are  unusually 
long-lived.  Sir  John  Lubbock,  in  his  interesting  book 
of  observations  on  ants,  bees,  and  wasps,  records  the 
fact  that  he  kept  two  ant  mothers  six  years,  and  some  of 
the  workers  in  his  artificial  ant  nests  lived  more  than 
seven  years. 

Wasps. 

Comstock  divides  the  wasps  into  the  Sphecina  and 
the  Vespina.  The  Sphecina  are  those  wasps  that  have 
the  habit  of  burrowing  into  the  ground  or  into  wood  to 
make  provision  for  their  young,  though  there  are  some 
peculiarities  of  nest-choosing  even  within  the  class  of 
the  Sphecina.  All  of  them  are  solitary;  that  is,  each 
female  makes  provision  for  her  own  young.  The  male 
does  not  live  long  beyond  the  time  of  mating,  the  third 
example  among  the  hymenopters  of  the  subordination  of 
the  male  in  the  economy  of  the  species. 

The  true  digger  wasps,  those  typical  of  the  class, 
make  burrows  in  the  ground,  provisioning  them,  and 
laying  one  egg  in  each  burrow.  The  spider  wasps,  so- 
called  because  they  provision  their  burrows  with  spiders, 
as  a  rule  burrow  into  the  ground  after  the  manner  of 
the  family  to  which  they  belong ;  but  others  of  them  make 
a  nest  of  mud  which  they  attach  to  the  under  side  of  some 
stone,  while  others  still  live  as  guests  in  the  nests  of  other 
digger  wasps. 

The  thread-waisted  wasps,  known  as  mud-daubers, 
fasten  their  clay  nests  up  in  the  corners  of  our  verandas 


HYMENOPTERA.  169 

or  close  up  under  the  eaves,  or,  failing  an  entrance  to  such 
a  favored  locality,  they  will  glue  them  to  the  under  side 


FIG.  68. — Nest  of  a  mud-dauber.     (Natural  size.     Kellogg.} 

of  stones.  If  you  watch  a  mud-dauber  at  work  you  will 
notice  the  curious  habit  it  has  of  jerking  its  wings 
frequently. 

One   family   of   the   digger   wasps   deserves   special 


FIG.  69. — The  cicada  killer,  Sphecius  speciosus. 

mention;   it   is   the   family   of   the   Bembecidae.     These 
wasps  are  to  be  expected  to  make  more  noise  than  a  wasp 


170  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

ordinarily  does — their  name  is  given  because  of  this 
peculiarity.  (Fig.  69.)  In  this  family  we  find  the  cicada 
killer,  a  wasp  over  an  inch  long,  rusty  black  in  color 
(though  sometimes  brighter  black  than  rusty) ;  the  ab- 
domen has  three  yellow  bands,  interrupted  in  the  middle 
line  along  the  back.  This  big  wasp  burrows  into  the 
pith  of  plants  for  a  nest,  and  provisions  her  burrow  with 


FIG.  70. — The  tarantula  killer.     Pepsis  formosa.     (Natural  size.     Kellogg.} 

a  single  cicada,  upon  which  she  lays  her  egg.  Here  also 
is  the  giant  of  the  whole  wasp  tribe,  the  tarantula  killer. 
This  insect  is  mentioned  by  Kellogg  as  common  in  Cali- 
fornia and  the  Southwest,  and  it  is  also  found  in  the 
Middle  West.  (Fig.  70.)  It  measures  about  two  and 
one-half  inches  in  length  and  has  a  spread  of  wings  of 
about  three  and  one-half  inches.  The  body  is  shining 
blue-black,  and  the  tawny  wings  are  bordered  with  black. 
These  two  powerful  wasps  have  in  the  greatest  per- 


HYMENOPTERA.  1 7 1 

fection  the  wonderful  instinct  of  knowing  just  where  to 
sting  their  victim  to  render  it  helpless.  Of  course  a 
cicada  is  foolish  enough  to  announce  its  whereabouts  by 
its  shrill  singing,  so  that  the  cicada  killer  has  little  trouble 
in  locating  its  prey;  but  the  cicada  is  as  powerful  as 
its  enemy,  and  a  good  deal  more  bulky.  The  tarantula 
must  be  "stalked"  more  cautiously  because  it  makes  no 
noise.  For  the  cicada,  one  stab  is  enough;  but  for  the 
tarantula,  owing  perhaps  to  the  almost  equal  wariness 
of  the  two  contestants,  a  battle  is  necessary  to  decide 
which  one  shall  come  off  victor.  In  either  case,  it  remains 
that  the  two  big  wasps,  without  being  taught,  know  just 
where  to  insert  their  sting,  and  both  usually  are  victorious. 

Others  of  the  digger  wasps  also  burrow  into  the  pith 
of  plants  and  provision  the  burrows  with  freshly-killed 
insects.  The  kind  of  insect  selected  is  usually  so  constant 
that  insect  collectors  come  to  know  their  wasp  by  the 
kind  of  insect  found  in  the  burrow. 

As  to  the  reproduction  of  the  Sphecina,  we  may 
take  a  typical  example.  When  the  egg-laying  time 
arrives,  the  female  selects  the  place  for  her  burrow,  though 
in  one  species  the  insect  provision  is  secured  first  and 
laid  to  one  side  while  the  mother  wasp  digs  the  burrow; 
but  usually  the  burrow  is  first  looked  after.  Then  the 
prey  is  secured,  and  this  the  wasp  usually  paralyzes  by 
stinging  in  one  of  the  thoracic  ganglia,  each  one  of  the 
bugs  or  spiders,  or  caterpillars  used.  With  some  of  the 
species  the  prey  is  killed;  but  in  either  case  it  is  placed 
in  the  burrow,  the  egg  is  laid  upon  it,  and  the  burrow  is 
closed.  The  mother  wasp  then  goes  away  to  make  new 
burrows,  stock  them,  and  lay  more  eggs.  Others  of  the 
class  take  a  little  different  method,  amounting  to  more 
care  in  looking  after  the  young.  With  these  wasps  the 


172  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

mother  goes  back  to  feed  the  growing  larva,  taking  with 
her  freshly-killed  insects  each  time  till  the  larva  is  ready 
to  pupate,  then  she  goes  away  permanently. 

Some  of  the  solitary  wasps  burrow  into  the  ground 
until  they  find  a  fat  grub,  and  in  this  they  lay  their  egg, 
whose  larva  will  find  fresh  meat  ready  without  any  further 
provision  on  the  part  of  the  mother.  The  egg  hatches 
in  from  one  to  three  days,  depending  upon  the  species. 
The  old  larva  spins  a  cocoon  about  itself  and  enters 
upon  the  pupal  stage.  In  two  or  three  weeks,  if  the  egg 
is  laid  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  or  the  following 
spring  if  the  egg  is  a  late  egg,  there  comes  out  a  full- 
grown  wasp. 

Some  solitary  wasps  conceal  their  burrows  carefully 
with  twigs,  pebbles,  or  straws,  returning  to  it  with  ease. 
From  this  it  seems  that  we  must  accredit  the  wasp  with  a 
fairly  good  memory  and  eyesight,  even  though  it  be 
memory  that  develops  each  time  out  of  the  successive 
recurrence  of  the  same  stimuli,  which  is  conceded  to  be 
the  lowest  form  of  what  we  call  memory.  The  fact  that 
the  wasp  mother  flies  each  time  to  her  burrow  without 
apparent  hesitation  would  argue  that  she  knows  the 
way  much  as  you  and  I  would  know  our  way.  Another 
fact  that  should  be  mentioned  is  the  preference  of  wasps 
for  sunshine.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  profitable  to 
note  that  the  sense  of  sight,  while  it  reaches  a  high  degree 
of  development  among  the  Hymenoptera,  nevertheless 
has  degrees  of  excellence  within  the  order.  Bees  see 
much  better  than  do  wasps,  and  it  is  probable  that  ants 
make  the  sense  of  smell  do  much  for  them  that  sight 
would  otherwise  do.  Wasps  will  work  the  center  of  a 
blossoming  field,  rather  avoiding  the  shaded  edges. 

The  social  wasps  can  be  distinguished  from  the  true 


HYMENOPTERA.  173 

solitary  wasp  by  the  fact  that  they  fold  their  wings  along 
the  back  when  they  alight,  plait  them,  that  is,  while  the 
wings  of  the  solitary  wasp  are  left  flat  when  at  rest.  It 
probably  would  be  more  nearly  right  to  say  that  a  wasp 
which  plaits  its  wings  is  one  of  the  Vespina,  since,  because 
of  other  features,  it  is  necessary  to  include  among  the 
wasps  that  fold  their  wings  along  their  backs  some  wasps 
that  have  the  solitary  habit  clinging  to  them.  The  life 
of  the  social  wasps  does  not  present  so  close  a  community 
organization  as  does  that  of  the  bees  and  the  ants.  The 
wasp  colony,  consisting  of  all  the  individuals  hatching 
from  the  eggs  of  one  queen,  persists  during  the  spring, 
summer,  and  autumn,  but  generally  the  only  members 
of  the  colony  to  hold  over  through  the  winter  are  the 
fertilized  females.  The  males  usually  die  early.  The 
females  hibernate  in  some  sheltered  place,  ready  to  crawl 
out  with  the  coming  of  spring  and  begin  the  formation  of 
a  new  colony.  Not  only  is  this  true,  but  the  workers 
are  not,  apparently,  so  well  apportioned  off  into  classes; 
one  worker  seems  to  do  several  kinds  of  work.  The 
workers  are  smaller  than  the  drones,  and  the  wasp 
mother  is  distinguished  from  the  workers  by  her  greater 
size.  (Fig.  71.) 

In  the  spring  the  mother  wasps  that  have  wintered 
over  make,  one  each,  a  nest  containing  a  small  number 
of  brood  cells  and  lay  one  egg  in  each  cell.  Usually  the 
wasp  provisions  each  cell  with  insects  that  she  has  killed 
and  partly  chewed.  The  larvae  of  this  first  brood  are  fed 
daily  by  the  wasp  mother,  the  food  being  of  the  same  kind 
each  time;  the  larvae  soon  pupate  in  the  cells.  This 
generation  is  a  generation  of  workers;  the  brood  which 
consists  of  males  and  queens  does  not  appear  till  later  in 
the  season.  The  young  workers  begin  at  once  to  enlarge 


174 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


the  nest,  making  new  brood  cells  and  adding  to  the  sup- 
ports of  the  increasing  nest.  In  each  of  these  cells  the 
mother  wasp  lays  an  egg.  Several  broods  of  workers 
are  thus  reared  with  the  help  of  the  young  wasps  which 
act  as  nurses  to  the  hatching  larvae;  and  then  comes  a 


FIG.  71. — Nest  of  a  paper- wasp,  Polistes,  a;  b,  young  larva;  c,  older  larva; 
d,  pupa;  e,  adult.  (All  one  and  one-  half  times  natural  size,  except  nest,  which 
is  much  reduced.  Kellogg.} 

brood  of  workers,  males,  and  queens.  The  males  live 
long  enough  to  fertilize  the  females  and  then  die,  leaving 
the  females  to  continue  the  species. 

The  nests  of  the  Vespina  are  placed  in  various  situa- 
tions, underground,  under  the  eaves,  on  a  tree  branch,  or 
in  some  sheltered  house  corner.  The  potter  wasps — the 
Eumenidse — make  nests  of  clay  or  mud  and  fasten  them 
to  the  branch  of  a  tree.  This  is  the  family  representing 
the  connecting  link  between  the  Sphecina  and  the  Vespina, 


HYMENOPTERA.  175 

resembling  the  Sphecina  closely  in  habits,  but  differing 
from  them  greatly  in  structure ;  and  it  is  on  this  structural 
basis  that  they  are  classed  with  the  Vespina,  although 
they  are  solitary  wasps. 

Others  of  the  Eumenidse  build  a  series  of  cells  in 
the  pith  of  some  plant,  burrow  into  the  ground,  or  use 
burrows  dug  by  some  other  wasp  or  by  some  different 
kind  of  insect.  Most  of  them  store  their  burrows  with 
caterpillars;  one  species  uses  the  saw-fly  entirely  as  food 
for  its  young.  Outside  the  Eumenidae,  the  majority  of 
the  Vespina  build  their  nests  of  paper.  This  paper  they 
make  out  of  old  bark  or  wood  chewed  to  a  pulp  and  mixed 
with  the  saliva  of  the  wasp -workers.  Occasionally  shreds 
of  leaves  cast  up  by  the  water's  edge  are  utilized,  and  this 
material  seems  to  make  a  paper  even  stronger  than  the 
usual  material. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
FIELD  WORK  ON  THE  DIPTERA. 

This  is  such  an  immense  order  that  there  will  be 
attempted  the  study  of  only  a  few  of  the  familiar  dipters. 

These  are  the  days  of  crusades  against  mosquitoes, 
nevertheless  there  may  still  be  found  breeding-places 
where  may  be  seen  the  familiar  wrigglers  or  mosquito 
larvae.  If  you  find  such  a  breeding-place,  bring  in  a  cup- 
ful of  the  water  with  the  wrigglers  in  it.  Divide  it  into 
two  parts  and  carefully  pour  on  to  the  water  surface  in 
one  of  the  two  tumblers  enough  kerosene  to  cover  the 
water  surface  with  a  thin  film  of  oil.  When  you  think 
you  have  enough  oil,  watch  the  wrigglers  to  see  what  is 
happening  and  to  convince  yourself  of  the  effectiveness  of 
this  treatment.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  death  of  the 
larvae?  Do  the  dead  larvas  sink  or  float?  What  is  the 
reason  for  their  position?  Could  their  death  be  called 
drowning  ? 

With  the  reading  glass  examine  the  immature  mos- 
quitoes in  the  other  glass.  Are  all  the  immature  mosqui- 
toes alike?  Can  you  find  any  pupae ?  What  are  the  pupae 
doing  ?  Can  you  discover  what  the  larvae  are  eating  ?  Do 
the  larvae,  when  they  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  rest 
parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  water  or  at  a  decided 
angle  ?  If  you  find  parallel  mosquitoes  are  they  malarial 
mosquitoes  or  not?  If  they  hang  at  an  angle,  what 
diseases  may  it  be  possible  that  they  are  carrying?  Both 
these  forms  of  mosquitoes  may  at  some  future  time  be 


FIELD    WORK   ON   THE   DIPTERA. 


177 


prepared  to  do  just  these  things  in  your  community,  and 
you  may  be  one  of  the  victims ;  hence  the  only  safe  thing 
is  to  kill  every  one  of  them  after  finishing  up  the  investi- 
gation work.  It  will  be  best  to  put  a  piece  of  mosquito 
bar  over  the  cup  to  catch  any  adults  that  may  emerge 
while  you  are  not  watching.  Can  you  find  any  such 
adults? 


FIG.  72. — A  blow  fly  or  flesh  fly.    (Kellogg,  after  Lugger;  natural  size  indicated 

by  line.) 

After  you  have  had  the  family  under  observation 
for  several  days,  use  the  reading  glass  often  to  keep  track 
of  what  is  going  on.  If  in  your  neighborhood  there  are 
some  suspected  breeding-places  for  mosquitoes,  visit 
them  and  take  along  your  bottle  of  oil. 

Learn  for  yourself  that  house  flies  and  stable  flies 
breed  in  filth,  by  finding  their  larvae  or  maggots  in  manure 
or  refuse  piles.  If  you  will  keep  your  eyes  open,  you  may 


178  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

be  able  to  discover  that  carrion  flies — flesh  flies  —  breed 
in  decaying  carcasses  and  also  in  some  other  places  coming 
closer  to  the  life  and  health  of  the  human  family.  (Fig. 
72.)  Notice  what  happens  in  hot  weather  when  meat 
from  the  dining  table  is  not  disposed  of  in  a  cleanly  way 
after  the  meal. 

It  will  be  easy  to  catch  some  half  dozen  flies  in  a  room, 
school-room  or  other  room.  Try  to  discover  with  the 
hand  lens  whether  the  six  flies  are  all  of  the  same  sort, 
that  is  if  they  look  alike.  Bear  in  mind  that,  when  a 
fly  emerges  from  its  pupal  case,  it  comes  out  adult  in  size 
as  well  as  in  powers.  Do  you  find  any  stable  flies  among 
the  half  dozen  captured? 

An  expedition  should  be  made  to  the  open  fields; 
and  for  this  the  dip  net  will  be  better  than  the  butterfly 
net.  You  are  going  after  flower  flies,  and  you  will  find 
them  hidden  in  flower  clusters.  Bring  your  dip  net 
over  a  flower  cluster,  give  the  flower  stem  two  or  three 
decided  taps,  and  you  may  be  rewarded  by  the  upward 
flying  of  several  glistening  green  or  otherwise  brilliantly- 
colored  flies.  If  you  have  with  the  other  hand  kept  the 
net  open,  the  flies  will  fly  upward  into  the  top,  and  you 
can  fold  the  net  over  upon  itself  once  and  keep  them 
prisoners  long  enough  to  have  a  good  look  at  them  with 
your  hand  lens.  These  are  the  syrphids  or  flower  flies; 
though  it  is  quite  possible  that  you  will  also  find -in  your 
net  some  of  your  beetle  friends  which  also  frequent 
flowers.  The  syrphids  are  the  flies  that  have  been 
occasionally  known  to  eat  solid  food,  a  few  pollen  grains; 
but  all  other  dipters,  so  far  as  known  at  present,  partake 
only  of  liquid  food,  excepting  the  rasping  off  of  sugar 
crumbs,  but  these  are  soon  dissolved  in  the  mouth  fluids 
and  are  also  swallowed  as  is  the  usual  liquid  food. 


FIELD    WORK    ON   THE   DIPTERA.  179 

These  syrphids  are  beneficial  both  as  larvae  and  as 
adults,  many  of  them  being  predaceous  in  the  larval 
stage;  hence  they  must  be  set  free  after  you  have  looked 
at  them  long  enough  to  be  able  to  recognize  them,  if  you 
were  to  see  them  again.  These  flower  flies  have  some 
representatives  that  like  the  shady  woods — a  thing 
rather  unusual  for  flies,  as  flies  notably  like  sunshine  and 
warmth;  so  an  expedition  with  the  insect  net  and  the 
hand  lens  may  find  some  of  the  other  syrphids,  the  object 
being  to  discover  what  these  beneficial  flies  look  like  and 
where  they  are  to  be  found,  all  with  the  view  to  letting 
them  alone  after  you  have  the  knowledge  sought. 

The  harmful  flies  are  often  given  names  which  tell 
what  they  do,  as  well  as  often  giving  a  clue  as  to  where 
to  find  them ;  as  house  flies,  stable  flies,  bot  flies,  horse  flies. 
On  the  window  pane  of  some  open  room  in  the  course 
of  an  hour,  several  sorts  may  be  captured;  and  after 
determining  with  the  aid  of  the  instructor  whether  there 
are  any  valuable  flies  among  them,  they  may  be  put  into 
the  killing  bottle,  and  should  be  set  up  as  soon  as  they  are 
dead.  The  pins  should  be  slender  and  are  to  be  thrust 
through  the  thorax,  the  fly  being  set  well  up  toward  the 
head  of  the  pin.  When  a  harmful  fly  is  captured  in  the 
field,  it  is  advisable  to.  have  the  killing  bottle  along, 
in  order  that  the  delicate  insect  may  not  be  put  into  the 
collecting  box  along  with  other  larger  and  more  powerful 
insects;  after  the  fly  is  overcome  by  the  fumes  of  the 
killing  agent,  it  should  be  pinned  immediately.  If  it  is 
allowed  to  shake  around  in  the  collecting  box  with  all  the 
other  finds,  it  will  be  unrecognizable  when  it  is  most 
wanted.  Few  life  histories  of  dipters  are  known,  and 
knowledge  of  this  sort  is  needed ;  here  is  a  field  for  investi- 
gation. When  one  goes  for  the  study  of  flies  in  this  way, 


l8o  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

he  should  take  with  him  forceps  for  picking  the  larvae 
out  of  their  larval  quarters,  and  a  small  sieve  for  sifting 
them  free  from  the  refuse  in  which  they  may  be  found. 
They  can  be  collected  in  a  small  bottle  of  alcohol,  both 
larvas  and  pupas. 


DIPTERA. 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  Two  membranous  wings  (when  wings  are  present), 
usually  transparent,  and  borne  by  the  mesothorax. 

2.  Hind  wings  either  reduced  to  mere  knobs,  halteres, 
or    halteres    accompanied     by     minute     wing-like 
organs  called  alulets. 

3.  Two  compound  eyes,  either  contiguous  or  separated 
by  the  frontal  lunule. 

4.  Antennae  inserted  near  the  top  of  the  head  line  or 
midway  down  the  face. 

•6.  A  curious,  fleshy  proboscis  with  tongue-like  flaps, 
or  a  complex  modification  of  the  mandibles  and  the 
maxillae,  making  needle-like,  piercing  stylets. 


181 


DIPTERA. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  true  flies,  and  the  members 
of  the  order  are  characterized  by  the  fact  that  they  have 
but  one  pair  of  wings,  though  there  are  some  exceptions 
to  this;  there  are  some  flies  that  do  not  have  any  wings, 
and,  of  course,  such  flies  do  not  fly — they  are  parasites 
and  live  on  some  other  animal  as  a  host.  After  the  term 
"bug,"  there  is  no  more  misused  term  than  the  name 
"fly."  Anything  that  looks  at  all  like  a  house  fly  is 
without  hesitation  called  a  fly;  and  nine  times  out  of  ten 
your  friend  will  understand  perfectly  when  such  a  "fly" 
is  indicated,  and  will  see  the  fly  which  may  not  be  a  fly 
at  all. 

The  order  includes  some  insects  that  pierce  the  epi- 
dermis of  other  animals,  not  biting  as  do  the  beetles,  but 
piercing,  much  as  the  bugs  do;  while  in  the  other  and 
much  larger  class  of  flies,  the  members  of  the  different 
families  must  content  themselves  with  lapping  up  liquid 
food,  or  rasping  off  small  particles  from  some  solid  sub- 
stance, these  to  be  dissolved  in  the  mouth  fluids  later  and 
swallowed  in  the  usual  way. 

Among  other  orders,  there  are  numerous  instances  of 
the  borrowed  use  of  the  term  "fly" — May  fly,  dragon  fly, 
gallfly,  saw-fly,  and  butterfly — hence  we  see  that  there 
is  not  much  in  a  name  anyway.  When  we  speak  correctly 
of  flies,  we  mean  the  dipterous  flies  with  their  two  wings, 
then  we  use  the  term  correctly  and  with  accurate 
knowledge. 

The  hind  wings  of  the  flies  are  replaced  by  two  queer 

183 


184 


FIELD  ZOOLOGY. 


little  humps  or  knobs,  called  halteres,  rudiments  of  the 
wings  which,  in  the  fly  ancestor  under  far  different  cir- 
cumstances, probably  were  present  but  are  not  now  needed 
and  are  only  suggested  by  these  tiny  vestiges  which 
probably  play  the  part  of  balancers  in  flight.  The 
tendency  toward  non-differentiated  forms  as  we  go 
downward  in  the  scale  explains  why  the  wings  in  the 


FIG.  73. — Mouth  parts  of  a  horse  fly.  md,  mandible;  mx,  maxilla;  mxl,  max- 
illary lobe;  mxp,  maxillary  palpus;  hyp,  hypopharynx;  Ib,  labrum;  ep,  epi- 
pharynx;  lit  labium;  la,  labellum.  (Kellogg.') 

lower  insects  are  increasingly  equal  in  size  and  similar 
in  venation,  while  in  the  higher  insects  there  is  the 
apparent  tendency  to  let  one  pair  of  wings  get  the  ascen- 
dancy over  the  other  pair.  So  here,  in  the  Diptera,  we 
have  the  hind  pair  of  wings  giving  way  altogether  to  the 
front  pair,  and  we  have  a  two-winged  animal  which  gives 
evidence  in  other  ways  of  being  high  in  the  animal  scale. 

The  order  includes  house  flies,  carrion  flies,  flower 
flies,  horse  flies,  bluebottles,  bee  flies,  pomace  flies,  hessian 
flies,  bot  flies,  robber  flies,  midges,  gnats,  dance  flies, 
punkies,  and  the  mosquito  tribe.  (Fig.  74.) 

The  mouth  parts  are  not  fitted  for  biting,  but  the 
mandibles,  when  present,  together  with  the  maxillae,  are 


DIPTERA. 


185 


elongated  into  slender,  sharp-pointed  stylets;  but  the 
majority  of  flies,  as  has  been  said,  have  the  mouth  parts 
adapted  for  lapping  up  liquid  food  much  as  a  kitten  laps 
up  milk.  This  lapping  mechanism  is  a  modification  of  the 
under  lip,  a  curious  jointed  organ  which  you  may  see  a 
house  fly  use  if  you  will  put  a  lump  of  sugar  down  on  some 


FIG.  74. — Various  forms  of  antennae  of  flies.     (Williston.} 

convenient  surface  and  put  your  reading  glass  in  position 
to  use  it  at  a  second's  notice.  The  members  of  the  order 
having  such  mouth  parts  feed  on  the  nectar  of  flowers, 
on  the  juices  of  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  on 
some  sweetish  exposed  liquid,  or  occasionally  on  some 
solid,  as  a  lump  of  sugar.  In  the  last  case  the  solid  must 
be  rasped  off,  if  one  may  so  describe  the  act  of  licking  the 
solid  sugar,  and  then  conveyed  to  the  mouth  where  it  is 
swallowed  after  solution. 


i86 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


The  compound  eyes  of  all  the  non-parasitic  dipters 
are  many-faceted  and  large  and  placed  well  forward; 
and  their  convexity  is  such  as  to  cause  them  to  project 
considerably  from  the  head,  giving  the  flies  keen  and 
comparatively  accurate  sight.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
catch  a  fly  napping.  In  addition,  some  of  the  flies  have 
eyes  with  facets  of  two  sizes;  these  are  flies  spending  the 
larval  and  pupal  stages  in  the  water,  and  are  called 
midges. 


FIG.  75. — Ocelli  and  compound  eyes  of  a  fly,  Phormia  regina.     A,  male;  B, 
female.     (Folsom.) 


The  dipters  reproduce  by  complete  metamorphosis. 
The  typical  larva  hatched  from  the  egg  is  a  white  grub, 
or  maggot,  as  it  is  popularly  called.  The  eggs  are  laid 
in  some  mass  of  decaying  matter,  some  filth,  either  animal 
of  vegetable ;  hence  the  maggot  has  no  need  for  the  effect- 
ive biting,  piercing,  or  sucking  mouth-parts  with  which 
other  larvae  are  provided.  It  is  simply  a  helpless,  footless, 
sometimes  headless  animal,  obtaining  its  food  osmotically 
through  the  skin.  The  larval  moultings  are  usually  rapid, 
and  the  pupal  stage  is  soon  reached.  In  this  stage,  in 
some  species  of  dipters,  the  pupa  looks  not  unlike  a  brown 
seed ;  it  might  well  be  mistaken  for  one  if  it  were  the  pupa 
of  a  house  fly.  When  the  pupa  case  is  discarded,  there 


DIPTERA. 


I87 


emerges  a  full-grown  fly,  complete  as  to  its  size  and 
powers.  Such  flies  are  oviparous  as  to  their  manner  of 
bringing  forth  their  young.  (Fig.  76.)  This  is  the  meta- 
morphosis of  the  majority  of  the  order;  but  there  are  flies 
that  bring  forth  their  young  in  a  much  more  advanced 
stage;  these  are  called  pupiparous  flies,  as  the  young  in 


n 

FIG.    76. — Metamorphosis  of    an  oviparous    fly,    Phormia   regina. 
B,  puparium;  C,  imago.      X  5.     (Folsom.) 


A,  larva; 


its  first  stage  of  life  looks  like  a  pupa.  And  there  are  still 
others  whose  young,  when  brought  forth,  are  alive  and  in 
a  stage  like  the  usual  larval  stage.  These  flies  are  called 
viviparous,  or  larviparous. 

According  to  Kellogg,  the  order  may  be  divided 
into  two  grand  divisions,  (i)  those  living  as  parasites  on 
mammals  or  birds  or  honey-bees,  with  the  body  flattened, 


1 88  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

and  often  wingless;  the  young  of  these  flies  are  born  alive; 
(2)  those  not  living  as  parasites,  body  of  the  usual  fly 
form,  and  the  young  usually  produced  as  eggs. 

The  first  division  includes  the  bird  ticks,  the  horse 
ticks  and  the  sheep  ticks,  flat- bodied  insects  with  skin 
more  or  less  leathery,  and  with  a  single  pair  of  wings; 
these  ticks,  of  course,  have  six  legs.  The  animals  more 
rightly  named  ticks  do  not  belong  to  the  Insecta,  but  to 
another  entirely  different  division  of  the  Arthropoda, 
along  with  the  mites. 

The  second  division  comprises  the  true  dipters;  that 
is,  the  typical  insects  -of  the  order,  and  this  division  has 
much  more  numerous  representatives  than  the  first 
division.  Among  the  harmful  dipters,  we  have 

Mosquitoes  House  flies 

Horse  flies  Stable  flies 

Gallgnats  Horn  flies 

Bot  flies  Cabbage-maggot  flies 

Beet  flies  Hessian  flies 

Screw-worm  flies  Cheese  skippers 

Fruit  flies  Onion  flies 

And  among  the  beneficial  dipters  may  be  mentioned : 
Tacliina  flies  Syrphid  flies 

Long-legged  flies  Bee  flies 

Midas  flies  Wasp  flies 

Dance  flies  Soldier  flies 

Of  the  harmful  flies  mentioned,  those  which  .are  a 
menace  to  the  health  of  human  beings  are  the  mosquitoes, 
the  house  flies,  the  stable  flies,  and  the  screw- worm  flies. 
(Fig.  77.)  The  so-called  house  fly  that  gives  you  a  sharp 
twinge  as  it  pierces  your  skin  with  its  stylets  is  not  a 


DIPTERA. 


I89 


house  fly,  but  probably  a  stable  fly,  which  looks  a  good 
deal  like  a  house  fly  and  frequently  comes  into  the  house 
and  bites  you,  possibly  because  you  taste  better  than  its 
usual  food.  The  stable  fly  has  stylets  for  piercing  epi- 
dermis, while  the  house  fly  can  only  lap  its  food.  (Fig. 
78.)  The  harmfulness  of  the  house  fly  comes  from 
another  habit;  it  gets  its  supply  of  food  from  exposed 
decaying  substances,  and  it  is  not  at  all  particular  as  to 


FIG.  77.  FIG.  78. 

FIG.  77. — A  stable  fly.     (Three  times  natural  size.     Kellogg.) 
FIG.  78. — Mouth  parts  of  a  house  fly.     (Kellogg  ) 

what  that  substance  is,  generally  the  contents  of  slop 
pails,  spittoons,  or  filth  found  elsewhere  in  places  where 
filth  is  left  exposed.  The  disease  germs  found  in  sputa 
of  tuberculous  persons,  or  the  agents  of  putrefaction 
found  wherever  decaying  matter  is  left  lying  in  the  air, 
are  taken  up  on  the  hairy  feet  of  these  flies  as  they  crawl 
about  these  places  in  search  of  food  or  to  lay  their  eggs; 
and  if  their  next  visit  is  to  your  dining-room  table  where 
food  is  sitting,  or  to  some  abrasion  in  your  skin,  woe  to 
you  as  to  the  possible  results.  (Fig.  79.)  House  flies 
undoubtedly  spread  infectious  diseases  by  carrying  the 
germs  of  those  diseases  in  the  filth  which  adheres  to 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


their  feet.  There  should  be  as  determined  a  crusade 
against  the  house  fly  as  there  is  now  being  carried  on 
against  the  mosquitoes.  House  flies  are  responsible  for 
the  spread  of  Asiatic  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  tuberculosis, 
and  it  may  be  proved  that  they  have  much  to  do  with 
the  carrying  of  diphtheria.  (Fig.  80.) 

The  eggs  of  the  house  fly  are  laid  in  manure  piles 
usually,  or  in  some  other  decaying  matter  of  even  a  more 


FIG.  79. — Foot  of  a  house  fly. 
(Kellogg.} 


FIG.  80. — A  house  fly. 
(Kellogg.) 


repulsive  nature.  Each  female  lays  about  one  hundred 
eggs.  These  eggs  hatch  in  about  six  or  seven  hours, 
and  the  larvae  lie  in  the  midst  of  abundant  food  supply 
for  the  five  or  six  days  of  their  larval  existence;  while  in 
this  stage  they  are  minute  whitish  grubs,  pointed  at  one 
end.  The  pupal  stage  lasts  five  days  after  this,  and 
during  this  stage  the  fly  looks  very  much  like  a  brown 
seed.  After  the  expiration  of  these  five  days  the  adult 
house  fly  emerges  to  go  about  houses  to  carry  on  the 
scavenger  work  and  filth-carrying  of  its  parents.  Of 
course  it  is  the  juices  of  the  compost  heap  that  render  it 
an  attractive  place  for  the  fly  to  lay  its  eggs;  and  if  that 
compost  were  spread  upon  the  land  to  enrich  it  (as  it 


DIPTERA.  191 

should  be  to  be  most  effective),  the  first  step  in  the 
extermination  of  the  house  fly  would  have  been  taken. 
Then  the  second  step  would  be  the  removal  of  all  filth, 
including  sputa  in  spittoons  and  on  sidewalks  and  floors, 
and  decaying  garbage  of  all  kinds;  thus  making  the  flies 
much  less  dangerous  as  disease  carriers.  Much  of  the 
danger  which  threatens  us  by  way  of  the  house  fly  is  the 
result  of  our  own  carelessness  and  disregard  of  the  laws 
of  health.  The  stable  fly,  as  has  been  said,  often  comes 
into  our  dwellings ;  and  it  may  bite  us  after  it  has  bitten 
some  other  animal  infected  with  some  disease,  or  after 
having  crawled  over  some  filth  full  of  disease  germs. 

One  of  the  notorious  crop  pests  of  the  order  is  the 
hessian  fly.  The  first  heard  of  it  was  in  1778;  hence 
it  is  an  ancient  enemy  of  American  wheat  fields,  and  if  it 
were  not  for  its  natural  enemies,  wheat  growing  would 
soon  become  a  thing  of  the  past  in  the  United  States. 
As  it  is,  conditions  are  bad  enough,  and  natural  as  well 
as  artificial  means  should  be  encouraged  for  the  stamping 
out  of  this  pest. 

The  fly  is  a  little  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a  pinkish  or  brownish  abdomen,  the  remaining 
body  regions  being  mainly  black.  The  female  lays  her 
eggs  in  the  lengthwise  furrows  of  wheat  leaves  on  the  upper 
side.  The  hatching  larvae  travel  downward  and  work 
themselves  inside  of  the  sheath  of  the  leaves  and  begin 
the  absorption  of  the  wheat  sap.  After  a  few  weeks  of 
this  kind  of  feeding,  the  insects  pass  into  the  pupa  stage 
familiarly  known  as  the  " flax-seed  stage,"  because  of  the 
close  resemblance  of  the  pupa  to  the  seeds  of  this  plant. 
The  adults,  which  soon  come  up  out  of  the  pupa  cases,  live 
only  a  few  days,  and  during  this  short  time  the  egg-laying 
is  done  for  the  second  brood,  which  usually  appear  in 


IQ2  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

August,  and  repeat  the  life  cycle  as  far  as  the  flax-seed 
stage,  in  which  condition  they  pass  the  winter.  Wheat 
stubble,  therefore,  ought  to  be  ploughed  under,  or  the 
standing  stubble  burnt  off.  Late  sowing  of  winter  wheat 
will  be  likely  to  deprive  the  second  brood  of  a  means  of 
wintering  over. 

This  insect  attacks  barley  and  rye  also;  and  some 
observers  record  the  fact  that  a  third  brood  has  been 
known  to  appear  when  conditions  were  unusually  favor- 
able. Among  its  insect  enemies  are  four  hymenopterous 
parasites,  whose  work  is  so  well  done  that  they  are  said  to 
destroy  nine-tenths  of  the  aggregate  number  of  hessian 
flies  annually.  If  this  is  true,  then  even  more  than  our 
wheat  crops  depend  on  soil  and  cultivation,  they  depend 
on  these  parasites,  which  we  cannot  see  and  would  not 
know  if  we  did  see  them. 

The  screw- worm  fly  is  not  so  well  known  in  the  middle 
and  northern  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  in  the  south- 
ern states,  especially  in  Texas,  it  is  very  troublesome. 
The  adult  fly  lays  its  eggs  on  flesh,  on  manure,  upon  some 
open  wound,  or  even  on  the  mucous  surfaces  of  domestic 
animals  and  the  nasal  passages  of  human  beings.  The 
larvae,  on  hatching  out  in  any  one  of  the  places  mentioned, 
eat  such  foods  as  may  be  supplied  by  each  source.  In  the 
case  of  the  human  being,  they  eat  upward  into  the  nasal 
cavities  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face,  causing  great 
distress  and  frequently  death. 

Among  the  grass  stem  flies  are  the  tiny  Hippelates, 
the  smallest  of  all  flies.  They  are  to  be  seen  in  summer 
weather  about  the  eyes  of  cattle,  dogs,  and  others  of  our 
domestic  animals.  In  a  recent  epidemic  of  the  "pink- 
eye" down  in  Florida,  the  germs  of  the  disease  were  proved 
to  have  been  carried  by  the  flies  of  this  genus. 


DIPTERA.  193 

The  pomace  or  fruit  flies,  or  vinegar  flies,  as  they  are 
so  often  called,  feed  on  decaying  fruit  or  other  vegetation 
which  is  over-ripe  or  decaying.  A  basket  of  pears  may  be 
attractive  to  these  flies,  not  only  as  furnishing  a  meal, 
but  also  as  a  good  place  to  lay  their  eggs.  Their  larvae 
are  often  seen  in  poorly-sealed  cans  of  fruit,  in  pickle 
jars  that  have  been  left  open,  or  in  brine  barrels.  Later 
their  pupae  may  be  seen  around  the  sides  of  the  containing 
vessel  just  above  the  liquid.  They  often  do  damage  to 
grapes  on  the  vines. 

About  one-half  of  the  dipterous  families  live  in  the 
water  until  ready  to  become  adults,  feeding  upon  vege- 
table matter  probably  and  are  supposed  to  do  some  good 
as  scavengers.  Of  the  remaining  families,  some  pass  the 
immature  stages  in  the  water,  some  on  the  land,  while 
the  remainder  do  not  depend  upon  water  at  all  for  their 
development. 

The  most  notorious  of  all  the  aquatic  families  is  the 
mosquito  family.  Like  all  other  dipters,  the  mosquitoes, 
some  of  them,  have  mouth  parts  adapted  for  lapping, 
while  others  have  the  piercing  and  sucking  beak.  Only 
the  latter  sort  are  important  from  the  human  point  of 
view;  and  of  the  piercing  and  sucking  sort  only  three 
genera,  so  far  as  present  knowledge  goes,  are  of  importance 
to  the  human  family,  because  of  the  relation  they  have 
been  found  to  sustain  to  the  spread  of  certain  diseases. 
These  three  genera  are  Culex,  Stegomyia,  and  Anopheles. 
To  Culex  belong  the  mosquitoes  that  keep  up  their  shrill 
buz-z-z-z  around  our  heads,  stopping  only  to  "take  a 
bite."  The  mosquitoes  of  the  genus  Culex  are  the  car- 
riers of  the  disease  known  as  filariasis.  Some  species 
of  Culex,  and  the  mosquitoes  belonging  to  the  genus 
Stegomyia,  spread  the  yellow  fever.  The  Anopheles 

13 


194 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


mosquitoes    are    responsible    for    the    dissemination    of 
malaria. 

All  mosquitoes  have  aquatic  immature  stages.  The 
eggs  are  usually  laid  in  rafts,  or  flat  packs,  or  in  some 
species,  singly,  on  the  surface  of  ponds  or  pools  or  slowly- 


mx 


m. 


I    li  h 


D 


FIG.  8 1. — Mouth  parts  of  female  mosquito,  Culex  pipiens.  A,  dorsal  aspect; 
B,  transverse  section;  C,  extremity  of  maxilla;  D,  extremity  of  labrum-epipharynx; 
a,  antenna;  e,  compound  eye;  h,  hypo  pharynx;  /,  labrum-epipharynx;  H,  labium; 
m,  mandible;  mx,  maxilla;  p,  maxillary  palpus.  (Folsom,  after  Dimmock.} 

moving  water,  and  hatch  in  from  one  to  four  days.  The 
larvse  are  .the  familiar  wrigglers  of  the  rain  barrel  or  the 
neglected  pool.  The  head  is  provided  with  two  bunches 
of  vibratile  hairs  and  these,  lashing  about,  keep  a  current 
of  water  constantly  moving  toward  the  greedy  mouth, 


DIPTERA. 


insuring  plenty  of  food.  The  superficial  opening  of  the 
respiratory  system  for  the  wriggler  is  in  the  posterior  end 
of  the  body,  the  exterior  ending  of  this  tracheal  system 


being  the  two-forked  arrangement  which  you  have  seen 
so  many  times.  The  opening  is  closed  by  tiny  flaps 
which  fit  tightly  together  while  the  larva  is  under  water. 


196  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

When  the  air  in  the  tracheal  system  is  exhausted,  the 
wriggler  backs  up  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  holds  on  by 
the  tension  of  the  water  molecules,  opens  up  these  tiny 
flaps,  and  breathes  its  tracheal  system  full  of  air  again. 

The  larval  stage  lasts  from  one  to  four  weeks  or  even 
longer,  according  to  government  investigations,  depending 
upon  the  species,  the  season,  and  the  varying  conditions 
of  food  supply,  temperature,  water,  and  light.  After 
the  third  moulting  of  the  larvae  they  appear  as  pupas, 
each  having  a  thick  head  end,  which  includes  the  slenderer, 
curving  abdomen.  Now  the  respiratory  tube  ends 
exteriorly  by  two  tubes  which  arise  from  the  upper  side 
of  the  thorax.  The  pupal  stage  lasts  from  one  to  five 
days  for  the  different  species. 

If  you  have  been  watching  some  standing  water 
with  some  of  these  mosquito  wrigglers  in  it,  in  the  course 
of  time,  many  of  these  curved  pupae  may  be  observed. 
They  hang  at  the  surface  of  the  water  and  do  not  go  below 
unless  the  water  is  disturbed,  or  they  are  frightened  by 
some  other  means.  Then  they  move  downward  with  a 
curious  jerking  motion  made  by  repeatedly  flapping  the 
slender  abdomen  against  the  big  head  end  of  the  body. 
These  pupae  are  an  exception  to  the  usual  pupal  con- 
dition; they  are  non-feeding,  as  pupaa  usually  are,  but 
they  are  very  active.  Most  pupae  carry  on  their  marvelous 
changes  on  the  way  to  adulthood  in  some  case  or  cocoon, 
hidden  from  our  eyes  and  to  all  appearance  motionless. 
But  the  mosquito  "tumbler"  lives -alongside  his  younger 
brothers  and  sisters,  in  the  same  medium,  breathing  as 
they  do,  and  gradually  developing  wings  and  long  legs, 
antennae  and  new  mouth-parts,  all  the  while  being  jostled 
about  by  numberless  other  creatures  in  their  tiny  ocean. 

Soon  after  the  first  one  of  these  "tumblers"  appears, 


DIPTERA.  197 


a  little  patient  watching  will  reveal  some  of  them  turning 
into  adults.  The  cast-off  pupal  skin  may  float  on  the 
water  surface  while  the  soft-bodied  mosquito  is  sunning 
itself  on  some  grass  stem  or  bit  of  a  leaf;  or  the  young 
mosquito  may  sail  on  the  tiny  raft  of  its  old  pupal  skin, 


FIG.   83. — Anopheles  punctipennu.     Female,  with  male  antenna  at  right  and 
wing  tip  showing  venation  at  left — enlarged.     (Howard.) 

while  the  wings  are  drying,  its  body  wall  hardening,  and 
while  it  is  taking  the  first  draughts  of  air  without  water. 
Mosquitoes  have  wings  sparsely  covered  with  scales, 
and  in  the  genus  Anopheles  these  scales  are  so  arranged 
as  to  give  an  alternately  light  and  dark  appearance  to  the 
wings.  (Fig.  83.)  In  Culex  the  wings  are  clear.  Again 


198  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

the  malaria  mosquito  lays  its  eggs  singly,  while  Culex  lays 
them  in  packs  or  rafts.  In  the  pool  which  contains  many 
of  the  wrigglers  and  tumblers,  there  may  be  seen  some 
wrigglers  which  are  coming  up  to  breathe ;  some  of  them 
will  be  seen  to  hang  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-five 
degrees,  while  others  will  rest  nearly  parallel  with  the 
water  surface  above  them.  The  latter  are  the  Anopheles 
or  malaria  mosquitoes,  and  the  forty- five  degree  wrigglers 
are  the  Culex. 

While  it  is  true  that  there  may  be  mosquitoes  present 
where  there  is  no  malaria  microbe,  and  vice  versa,  the  only 
safe  course  to  pursue  is  to  kill  off  the  mosquitoes  already 
hatched,  and  to  destroy  any  possible  breeding-places. 
It  has  been  proved  that  the  malarial  parasite  can  complete 
its  life  round  in  some  species  of  birds,  but  an  Anopheles 
mosquito,  biting  first  such  a  bird,  and  second  a  human 
being,  might  thus  transmit  the  disease  from  the  bird  to 
the  human  being.  The  malarial  parasite  enters  the 
digestive  canal  of  the  mosquito  through  its  biting  some 
infected  person,  breeds  in  the  intestines,  passing  finally 
by  the  blood  tract  to  the  head  and  neck  region,  where 
it  collects  in  the  salivary  glands.  When  such  a  mosquito 
bites  another  person  the  saliva  from  these  glands  injected 
into  the  wound  made  by  the  stylets,  carries  with  it 
numbers  of  the  parasites,  which  are  at  that  time  ready 
to  enter  upon  the  next  stage  of  their  life  history  in  the 
body  of  the  human  host. 

Except  in  a  very  few  cases,  the  male  mosquito  has 
long  feathery  antennae,  the  feathery  appearance  being  due 
to  the  auditory  hairs  which  cover  the  antennal  joints 
thickly.  The  female  mosquito  has  antennae  with  fewer 
and  shorter  hairs.  The  male  mosquito,  where  he  eats 
at  all,  eats  vegetable  food;  most  of  them  live  a  much 


DIPTERA. 


199 


shorter  life  than  do  the  f erhales ;  some  have  little-developed 
mouth  parts  and  presumably  eat  nothing  at  all. 

As  to  the  hibernation  of  mosquitoes,  some  species 
pass  the  winter  in  the  adult  stage,  other  species  in  the 
egg  stage,  and  still  others  as  larvae ;  none  is  actually  known 
to  winter  over  in  the  pupal  stage.  Observations  show 
that  mosquito  larvae  are  strongly  resistant  to  cold,  some 


FIG.  84. — Antennae  of  mosquito,  Culex  pipiens:  A,  male,  B,  female.    (Folsom.) 

being  able  to  freeze  repeatedly  and  yet  survive.  The 
larvae  live  mainly  on  decaying  vegetable  matter  and 
living  algae;  though  some  of  them  are  carnivorous,  eating 
other  animals  in  the  pond,  smaller  than  themselves. 
Practically  all  mosquito  breeding  goes  on  in  waters  where 
there  are  no  fish;  as  the  mosquito  mother,  probably 
obeying  the  self-preservative  tendency  of  its  ancestors 
to  lay  its  eggs  in  situations  as  free  from  dangers  as 
possible,  usually  deposits  its  eggs  in  some  pond  or  stagnant 
pool.  One  species  of  Culex  prefers  to  deposit  its  eggs  in 


200  FIELD   ZOOLOGY 

some  hollow  in  the  ground  where  the  water  stands  only 
occasionally,  and  where  the  eggs  will  hatch  in  install- 
ments. Another  species  of  mosquito  deposits  its  eggs 
singly;  the  eggs  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  where 
they  remain  till  the  following  spring  before  they  hatch. 
Government  experts  tell  us  that  the  normal  food  of  adult 
mosquitoes  is  probably  plant  juices,  and  that  the  taste 
for  blood  is  probably  an  acquired  habit.  If  that  is  true, 
we  certainly  have  reason  to  be  thankful  that  the  blood- 
sucking habit  is  confined  to  the  females  of  our  dangerous 
mosquitoes. 

Small  fish  are  by  far  the  most  important  natural 
enemies  of  mosquitoes.  The  carnivorous  minnows,  the 
sticklebacks,  the  sunfish,  are  all  efficient  destroyers  of  the 
larvae  in  permanent  pools  of  water.  The  common  gold 
fish  does  good  service  in  similar  places.  Aquatic  insects, 
such  as  the  water  scavengers,  the  diving  beetles,  dragon- 
fly larvae,  all  are  valuable  allies  of  man  in  getting  rid  of 
immense  numbers  of  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae.  Adult 
mosquitoes  are  devoured  by  bats,  night-hawks,  swallows, 
martins,  and  flycatchers,  as  well  as  by  the  adult  dragon 
flies.  These  last-named  seem  to  have  special  preference 
for  a  mosquito  diet,  for  which  we  ought  to  be  so  thankful 
that  we  would  never  kill  a  dragon  fly  needlessly.  It  is 
said  that  the  streets  and  houses  of  Honolulu  would  be 
practically  uninhabitable  if  it  were  not  for  the  dragon 
flies  that  hunt  the  mosquito  swarms  constantly  (Kellogg) . 

Mosquitoes  in  the  adult  stage  are  also  attacked  by 
certain  fungous  diseases  similar  to  those  which  attack 
our  house  flies,  and  leave  their  bodies  mere  shells,  filled 
with  the  hyphal  growth  of  the  plant. 

On  the  part  of  man  in  the  attempt  to  destroy  these 
disease  carriers,  the  first  step  is  to  drain  every  pool  or 


DIPTERA.  2O I 

pond,  and  empty  every  rain  barrel  or  other  vessel  which 
might  serve  as  a  breeding-place.  If  draining  is  imprac- 
ticable, covering  the  surface  with  a  coating  of  oil  will 
kill  the  larvae  and  the  pupae.  They  are  air-breathing 
animals,  and  the  oil  film  makes  it  impossible  to  get  air 
to  breathe;  they  drown  as  you  and  I  would  if  we  were 
shut  off  from  air.  Good  ventilation  will  usually  disperse 
large  numbers  of  them,  which  have  the  habit  of  collecting 
about  dwellings,  porches,  area-ways,  and  other  sheltered 
places.  Mosquitoes  are  not  strong  on  the  wing,  and  a 
stiff  breeze  often  sweeps  them  out. of  their  course.  This 
is  especially  true  of  Anopheles,  the  malaria  disseminator. 
Anopheles  and  the  semi-domestic  species,  Culex  pipiens, 
have  limited  powers  of  flight  and  so  must  breed  close  to 
their  feeding-places,  two  hundred  yards,  in  some  cases 
twenty-five  feet  will  be  found  to  be  their  limit.  Adult 
mosquitoes  vary  in  their  feeding 
habits;  some  fly  only  at  dusk,  some 
fly  almost  all  night,  hiding  in  dark 
places  or  at  the  bases  of  rank-growing 
grasses  during  the  day ;  and  still  other 
species  may  be  found  abroad  in  the 
daytime. 

As  to  the  good  qualities  of  the 
beneficial    fly    families,    much    more     FIG.  85.— A  syrphid  or 

•1,1  •  1  ^1  ,1  •  r  flower  fly.   (Kellogg.'] 

might  be  said  than  there  is  space  for 
here.  To  them  we  are  indebted  for  the  destruction  of  large 
numbers  of  wood-boring  beetles  (midas  flies) ;  of  grass- 
hoppers (bee  flies  and  wasp  flies) ;  and  the  pollenation  of 
many  plants  (flower  flies  or  Syrphids).  (Fig.  85.)  The 
Tachina  flies  deserve  special  mention  here.  They  are  rather 
heavy- bodied  flies,  with  hairs  generally  more  numerous 
and  longer  than  the  hairs  on  the  house  fly's  body;  though 


202  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

they  resemble  the  house  flies  in  the  gray  tints  of  the  body 
and  in  the  buzzing  sound  with  which  they  fly,  though  the 
buzzing  is  not  so  pronounced  in  the  case  of  the  house  fly. 
This  fly  family,  Howard,  the  government  entomologist, 
tells  us,  is  the  most  beneficial  of  all  the  fly  families,  and  the 
benefit  conferred  by  them  enormous.  The  Tachina  flies 
make  short  work  of  a  brood  of  army  worms  by  laying 
their  eggs  in  the  juicy  bodies,  and  the  Tachina  larvae  do 
the  rest.  They  also  attack  grasshoppers,  saw  flies  and 
saw  fly  larvae,  bugs,  beetles,  and  wasps  by  the  same  sure 
parasitic  means.  Any  big-bodied,  dark-colored  fly  with 
bristling,  stiffish  hairs,  rather  sparsely  scattered  over  the 
surface  of  its  body,  is  fairly  sure  to  be  a  Tachina  fly,  and 
should  be  carefully  let  alone;  and,  if  it  by  any  chance 
gets  into  the  house,  it  should  in  due  time  be  turned  out  of 
doors  where  it  may  freely  carry  on  its  good  work  of  getting 
rid  of  harmful  insects. 

The  Syrphids  are  the  flies  that  rival  the  Tachinas  in 
point  of  usefulness  to  man.  The  larvae  vary  in  their 
feeding  habits,  but  most  of  them  are  useful  in  this  stage; 
some  of  them  feed  upon  plant  lice,  some  upon  decaying 
plant  and  animal  remains.  In  the  adult  stage  they  are 
the  flower  pollenators.  The  drone  fly  that  comes  into 
the  house  in  the  late  summer  is  one  of  these  Syrphids. 
It  much  resembles  a  bee  in  appearance,  hence  its  name. 
Its  maggot  is  the  rat-tailed  larva  so  often  found  in  mud 
or  excrementitious  matter.  They  are  all  conspicuous 
flies,  with  some  bright  markings  on  the  body,  usually 
yellow;  and  often  metallic  in  color,  or  green  with  black 
bandings. 

Of  these  two  fly  families,  all  the  members  are  bene- 
ficial ;  of  some  of  the  other  flies  mentioned  in  the  beneficial 
list  there  are  some  that  would  be  rather  on  the  "half- 


DIPTERA.  203 

way  "  list.  Such  a  family  is  the  family  of  the  robber  flies. 
They  are  entirely  predaceous,  fiercely  so;  and  as  long  as 
they  prey  upon  injurious  insects,  all  well  and  good;  but 
when  they  pounce  upon  a  bee,  a  tiger  beetle,  or  a  dragon 
fly  they  are  decidedly  injurious.  They  also  eat  many 
smaller  flies,  and  the  chances  are  that  such  flies  are  better 
dead  than  alive.  The  robber  flies  are  swiftly-flying 
insects,  pointed  as  to  the  abdomen;  the  legs  are  long  and 
strong  and  the  claws  are  prominent  and  set  nearly  at  a 
right  angle  with  the  tarsi.  The  long-legged  flies  are 
much  slenderer  flies,  with  long  dangling  legs  which  get 
tangled  up  as  their  owners  fly  uncertainly  short  distances, 
and  sit  down  frequently,  as  if  tired  of  managing  such 
difficult  things.  They  eat  smaller  flies  and  gnats. 


FIG.  86. — Aggressive  mimicry.     On  the  left,  a  bee,  Bombus  mastrucatus;  on  the 
right,  a  bee  fly,  Volucella,  bombylans.     (Natural  size.    Folsont.) 

The  wasp  flies  are  exceedingly  like  wasps  in  body 
form  and  coloring,  but  possess  only  two  wings.  They  are 
all  flower  pollenators,  and  in  addition  to  this  their  larvae 
are  parasitic,  thus  conferring  a  second  benefit. 

The  soldier  flies  have  slender  legs,  often  variously 
shaped,  some  having  the  femora  and  the  tibiae  flattened 
or  spinose  or  scaly.  Most  of  them  look  hump-backed 
because  of  the  thorax'  being  very  convex  on  the  upper 
side,  the  neck,  where  it  joins  the  head  to  the  thorax, 


2O4  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

also  being  very  slender.  The  beak  stands  out  straight 
in  front  of  the  head,  and  their  prey,  smaller  flies,  they 
impale  upon  it. 

The  bee  flies  have  rather  heavy  bodies  covered  with 
soft  hairs,  and  look  much  like  bees,  even  to  the  colors  in 
some  species.  (Fig.  86.)  The  adults  are  flower  pollenators ; 
and  in  eating  the  pollen  assist  in  carrying  it  about  on 
their  hairy  bodies,  thus  accomplishing  cross-pollenation 
for  many  plants.  Their  larvae  are  parasitic  upon  the 
eggs  of  several  kinds  of  insects,  especially  locusts. 

It  may  seem,  from  the  fly  families  mentioned,  that 
the  order  suffers  a  reputation  which  it  ill  deserves;  but 
hardly  so.  The  one  family,  Muscidae,  the  house  fly  family, 
is  the  most  numerous  order,  and  includes  pests  enough  to 
put  the  work  of  the  beneficial  flies  in  strong  contrast,  if 
not  to  outweigh  it. 


ODONATA. 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

Dragon  flies. 

1.  Four  gauzy,  shining  wings  of  about  equal  size. 

2.  Body  strong,  long,  and  tapering  toward  tip  of 

abdomen. 

3.  Compound  eyes  large  and  prominent. 

4.  Flight  zigzag,  swift,  and  long-continued. 

Damsel  flies. 

i.  Same  as  for  dragon  flies  but  on  a  much  smaller 
pattern. 


205 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
ODONATA. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  dragon  flies  and  the  damsel 
flies,  the  fiercest  of  all  predaceous  insects,  preying  upon 
other  weaker  insects,  and  upon  the  weaker  members  of 
their  own  kind  in  the  larval  stage ;  and  even  in  the  adult 
stage  the  weaker  occasionally  furnish  a  meal  for  the 
stronger.  The  damsel  flies  are  the  narrow- winged  dragon 
flies,  and  are  more  nearly  strictly  aquatic,  usually  flying 
only  short  distances  above  the  pond  or  river  and  not 
making  long  excursions  away  from  the  vicinity  of  their 
water  haunts.  Dragon  flies  fly  higher  over  the  water 
surface,  or  into  fields  and  sunny  places  generally;  a  few 
species  have  a  liking  for  the  neighborhood  of  dwellings. 

All  dragon  flies  have  four  strong  wings,  and  the  pairs 
are  nearly  alike  in  size.  The  body  is  slender,  smooth, 
and  cylindrical  or  tapering.  Their  flight  is  strong  and 
long-sustained,  and  the  wings  are  built  to  stand  this 
strain.  The  subcostal  vein  of  each  front  wing  is  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  a  groove,  and  the  short  cross- veins  in  that 
groove  are  enlarged  vertically  so  as  to  form  effective 
braces.  About  two-thirds  of  the  way  out  to  the  tip  of  the 
wing,  there  is  a  notch  or  node  in  the  front  margin  of  the 
wing;  and  at  or  near  this  notch,  there  is  usually  a  dark 
spot  called  the  pterostigma  or  wing  mark.  In  some  of 
the  species  the  wings  are  clear  of  other  markings,  but  in 
other  species  the  wings  are  crossed  by  various  bands  or 
spots  of  color.  In  the  male  of  the  Black  Wing,  the  dark 

207 


208  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

color  suffuses  the  whole  wing.  In  the  damsel  flies  these 
colorations  are  often  bright  green,  blue,  or  red.  The 
iridescent  gleam  from  the  wings  of  a  living  dragon  fly  is 
probably  due  to  the  refraction  of  sunlight  from  the 
minute  blood  drops  mingled  with  air,  as  this  fluid  circu- 
lates through  the  delicate  double  sac  forming  the  wing,  thus 
refracting  the  light  components  of  different  length,  giving 
corresponding  color  impressions.  These  colors  fade  in 
death  and  the  wing  seems  uniformly  colored  or  colorless. 

The  wing  movement  in  flight  is  a  figure  eight  per- 
formed by  the  wings  acting  separately.  These  are  the 
insects  which  have  the  tracheal  pockets  reinforcing  the 
usual  tracheary  tubes  of  the  respiratory  system.  They 
do  not  fly  so  high  as  do  some  of  the  butterflies;  nor  do 
they  make  migrations  as  do  some  of  the  lepidopters,  but 
their  flight  is  much  stronger,  they  can  go  much  longer  on 
the  wing,  and  they  hunt  their  prey  exclusively  from  on 
the  wing.  The  Odonata,  both  immature  and  adults, 
have  strong  mandibles  and  maxillse  for  seizing  their  prey 
and  tearing  its  flesh  in  pieces. 

The  head  is  unusually  large,  more  than  two-thirds 
of  it  being  made  up  of  the  compound  eyes.  There  are 
more  than  thirty  thousand  facets  in  the  compound  eye 
of  a  dragon  fly;  that  means  more  than  thirty  thousand 
parts  in  the  mosaic  of  yourself  when  the  dragon  fly  looks 
at  you.  And  with  the  Odonata  as  with  the  Lepidoptera, 
the  finer  the  mosaic,  the  better  the  image.  Indeed  you 
will  find  it  very  difficult  to  catch  a  dragon  fly  off  its  guard. 
You  may  be  obliged  to  steal  upon  it  from  behind,  and  then 
feel  ashamed  for  killing  an  insect  so  intelligent  and  so 
beneficial  in  every  way.  Dragon  flies  have  a  special 
fondness  for  flies  and  mosquitoes,  and  they  also  devour 
wasps.  If  you  are  ever  sneaking  enough  to  catch  one  late 


ODONATA.  209 

in  the  afternoon,  on  his  way  home,  you  will  usually  find 
his  mouth  full  of  flies,  so  full  that  he  has  not  yet  had  time 
to  stop  to  chew  and  swallow  them.  The  prey  is  caught 
by  the  six  slender  legs,  and  then  held  by  the  front  legs 
while  the  insect  devours  it. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that,  with  the  draining  of  the 
ponds  and  streams  for  the  extermination  of  the  harmful 
mosquitoes,  has  come  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  dragon 
flies.  If  these  dragon  flies  ate  only  mosquitoes,  this  would 
not  be  a  serious  matter ;  but  the  large  service  which  dragon 
flies  render  in  eating  flies,  gnats,  and  moths,  puts  another 
face  on  the  situation.  For  several  years,  since  1895,  in 
fact,  there  has  been  an  organized  crusade  against  mos- 
quitoes, and  it  has  been  quite  successful  in  ridding  the  land 
of  large  numbers  of  these  pests.  But  the  house  and  the 
stable  flies  constitute  an  even  greater  menace  to  the  health 
of  human  communities  as  well  as  to  lower  animals,  and 
chiefly  because  they  are  a  tolerated  nuisance;  and  for 
that  very  reason,  dangerous  in  the  extreme.  It  would 
seem,  therefore,  that  the  loss  of  any  insects  that  prey 
upon  flies  would  be  productive  of  an  increase  in  disease 
among  human  beings,  unless  direct  measures  were  taken 
against  the  breeding  and  domestic  harboring  of  these 
pests.  Stock-breeders  pay  more  attention  to  the  attacks 
of  bot  flies  and  horn  flies  than  do  human  beings  to  the 
insidious  approach  of  the  disease-carrying  house  and 
stable  fly  in  our  homes,  living-rooms,  sleeping-rooms,  and 
dining-rooms.  Whether  this  decrease  in  the  number  of 
dragon  flies  will  result  in  disturbing  noticeably  the  balance 
of  nature  remains  to  be  seen. 

The  development  is  with  incomplete  metamorphosis, 
the  larval  stage  being  greatly  extended  and  the  pupal 
stage  lacking.  The  egg-laying  is  accomplished  usually 
14 


210 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


while  the  female  is  on  the  wing.  The  female  poises  just 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  occasionally  dipping  down 
as  an  egg  is  discharged;  or  from  her  flight  she  swoops 
down  at  the  instant  of  depositing  the  egg.  The  eggs  are, 
by  some  species,  deposited  free  in  the  water,  while  others 
deposit  them  in  the  stems  of  water  plants,  the  slit  in  the 
stem  being  made  by  the  sharp  ovipositor.  The  time  of 
hatching  of  the  egg  varies  with  the  species  and  with  the 


FIG.  87. — Stages   in   development  of    a  dragon  fly,  Libellula  pulchella. 
nymphal  skin;  B,  imago.     (Slightly  reduced.    Folsom.) 


A,  last 


season  of  deposit.  The  eggs  of  some  of  the  dragon  flies, 
laid  in  midsummer,  hatch  in  a  few  days,  six  to  ten,  while 
eggs  laid  in  autumn  do  not  hatch  until  the  following 
spring. 

From  the  eggs  hatch  tiny  nymphs  with  slender  legs, 
thin  bodies,  and  ho  wings,  of  course.  These  nymphs  are 
aquatic  throughout  their  long  life ;  hence  their  respiratory 
system  is  adapted  for  breathing  under  water,  being  a 
curious  internal  modification  of  the  alimentary  canal 
at  the  anal  end  of  the  body.  Their  food  consists  of  other 
forms  of  aquatic  life,  mosquito  eggs,  larvae,  pupae,  and 


ODONATA.  211 

adults;  May-fly  nymphs,  some  weaker  nymphs  of  their 
own  kind,  and  aquatic  worms. 

Some  dragon-fly  species  do  not  attain  their  full  size 
under  a  year,  while  others  reach  adult  size  in  a  few  months. 
The  nymph  comes  to  maturity  by  frequent  moultings; 
the  exact  number  of  moults  is  not  known,  but  an  old 
nymph  may  be  known  by  its  size  and  dingy  color.  Just 
before  each  moult,  the  colors  are  uniformly  dingy  brown, 
while  the  new  nymph  will  be  a  brighter  color,  usually 
greenish;  and  when  it  approaches  maturity  it  will 
approximate  the  size  of  the  adult  dragon  fly. 

If  you  are  fortunate  enough  to  live  near  a  pond,  go 
down  to  it  some  warm  spring  morning  or  morning  in  the 
early  summer,  and  you  may  be  lucky  enough  to  see  some 
dragon  fly  making  its  final  moult.  Here  it  comes,  a 
clumsy,  big-headed  thing,  dragging  itself  up  out  of  the 
water  on  to  a  grass  stem  or  on  to  the  mud  at  the  water's 
edge.  It  sits  still  in  the  sunshine  while  its  old  nymphal 
skin  dries  and  cracks  along  the  back,  and  out  of  the  rent 
there  begins  to  appear  the  adult  insect,  shoulders  first, 
and  head  afterward.  After  considerable  maneuvering 
it  is  finally  free,  and  you  see  a  wet-skinned,  soft-bodied 
dragon  fly,  with  its  big  wings  wet  and  wrinkly  and  yet 
lacking  the  brilliant  colors.  It  may  take  a  good  share  of 
the  forenoon  to  dry.  Drying  means  the  hardening  of  the 
chitin  in  its  body  wall;  and  in  its  wings  the  chitin  ribs 
must  dry  before  the  insect  can  perform  its  wonderful 
feats  of  flight.  The  colors  gradually  come  out  as  the 
body  dries,  and  possibly  while  you  are  looking,  the  shining 
wings  expand  and  off  sails  the  insect  on  its  maiden  flight, 
for  its  first  breakfast  on  land. 

The  old  nymphal  cases,  or  exuviae,  may  be  found 
around  the  water's  edge,  or  you  may  rake  them  out  as  you 


212  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

poke  about  for  water  beetles  or  aquatic  bugs.  They  are 
thin,  translucent  cast-offs  of  various  sizes,  according  to  the 
age  of  the  nymph  which  crawled  out  of  them.  The  wall 
material  is  chitin,  and  they  will  remain  in  the  water  a 
considerable  time  before  they  will  suffer  distintegration ; 
chitin  serves  its  purpose  well  as  a  body  covering,  and 
wears  long  before  it  suffers  injury  from  any  cause.  Though 
it  usually  suffers  decomposition  in  water  after  the  lapse 
of  a  year,  it  is  much  less  affected  by  acids  than  it  is  by 
water. 

About  three  hundred  species  of  dragon  flies  are  known 
in  the  United  States  and  adjoining  countries ;  two  thousand 
in  the  world.  The  great  majority  prefer  warm  localities, 
although  Kellogg  records  some  as  having  been  found  as 
high  as  ten  thousand  feet  altitude,  and  as  far  north  as 
63°  in  Siberia,  65°  in  Alaska,  and  76°  in  Norway. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
EPHEMERIDA. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  May  flies,  curious  gauzy- 
winged  creatures  to  be  found  in  the  neighborhood  of 
ponds  or  streams,  where  the  sunlight  falls,  or  near  the 
electric  lights,  if  you  are  on  the  lookout  for  " sights." 
The  body  of  the  adult  May  fly  is  extremely  frail ;  the  wings 
are  made  of  the  finest  gauze  stretched  over  a  framework 
of  delicate  veins.  The  front  wings,  when  all  four  are 
present,  are  much  larger  than  the  hind  wings;  and  the 
hind  wings,  in  some  species,  are  greatly  reduced  or  wanting. 
There  is  very  little  of  chitin  in  the  body  walls,  hence  the 
powers  of  flight  are  slight,  and  the  insect  lacks  fighting 
qualities,  the  qualities  which  always  make  for  the  individ- 
ual in  its  struggle  for  survival  in  a  world  filled  with  other 
living  beings.  The  insect  is  so  weak  in  the  adult  stage 
that  about  the  only  explanation  of  its  persistence  seems 
to  be:  first,  the  greater  strength  and  assertiveness  of  the 
insect  in  its  immature  stage;  and  second,  the  fact  that  the 
reproductive  energy  of  the  adult  is  discharged  so  soon 
after  the  last  moult. 

In  the  female  the  legs  are  weak,  while  in  the  males 
it  is  only  the  hind  legs  that  are  weak.  The  abdomen 
of  both  sexes  usually  bears  two  or  three  stiffish  bristles  at 
the  caudal  end.  The  head  has  compound  eyes  and  short 
antennas ;  some  species  are  provided  with  weakly-developed 
mouth  parts,  but  in  most  May  flies  the  mouth  parts  are 

213 


214 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


so  little  developed  as  to  be  of  no  use.     Eating  seems 
hardly  necessary  during  the  extremely  short  adult  life. 

The  metamorphosis  of  the  May  flies  is  incomplete. 
The  eggs  issue  from  the  egg  glands  in  packets,  as  the 
swarm  of  adults  zigzags  about  over  the  surface  of  the 


FIG.  88. — Nymph  and  adult  of  a  May  fly,  Hexagenia  variabilis.     A,  nymph;  B 
imago.     (Natural  size.    Folsom.} 

water.  From  the  eggs  hatch  tiny  nymphs  without  wings 
or  wing  pads,  and  looking  very  much  like  the  most 
primitive  of  living  insects.  These  nymphs  crawl  about 
over  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  eating  any  acceptable  food 
that  may  offer,  possibly  feeding  on  other  animal  life. 
The  mouthparts  of  the  nymph  are  adapted  for  biting 


EPHEMERIDA.  215 

and  chewing;  and  the  larvae  seem  well  able  to  protect 
themselves,  being  able  to  act  on  the  offensive  as  well  as 
being  warily  defensive.  During  this  stage  the  insect 
fares  as  well  as  do  most  other  insects ;  it  is  only  in  the  adult 
stage  that  the  insect  is  peculiarly  a  weak  insect.  Finally, 
at  the  end  of  a  year,  or  two  or  three  years  for  some  species, 
the  nymph  is  ready  for  the  last  moult.  It  breathes  while 
in  the  water  by  means  of  flat,  leaf -like  gills,  extending 
into  the  water  from  either  side  of  the  body  along  the 
entire  abdomen  and  in  some  species  from  the  thorax  also. 
Some  very  young  nymphs  are  without  these  lateral 
appendages,  and  seem  to  make  the  exchange  of  carbon 
dioxid  for  oxygen  through  the  delicately  thin  body  skin, 
which  is  at  that  time  without  chitin. 

Having  reached  the  adult  nymph  stage,  the  old 
nymph  floats  to  the  water  surface,  or  crawls  out  onto  the 
bank,  begins  to  dry,  the  skin  splits,  and  out  comes  the 
adult  May  fly.  Others  appear  in  rapid  succession,  so 
that  there  is  soon  a  swarm  of  these  delicate  creatures; 
then  all  join  in  the  whirling  dance  over  the  river  surface, 
or  under  some  electric  light  if  there  is  one  near.  If  the 
swarm  belongs  to  the  short-lived  May  flies,  the  mating 
occurs  during  this  dancing  flight,  the  females  drop  their 
egg  packets,  and  soon  flutter  after  them  and  fall  into  the 
water,  the  frail  adult  life  over  and  done  before  the  coming 
of  another  sunrise.  It  is  because  of  the  shortness  of  the 
adult  life  of  the  most  of  the  species  that  the  name  of  the 
order  is  given.  Ephemerida  is  made  of  the  Greek 
preposition  yephi,  meaning  during,  and  the  Greek  noun 
emera,  meaning  a  day. 

No  May  fly,  so  far  as  known,  lives  beyond  the  third 
day;  and  three  days  is  an  unusual  period,  the  majority 
of  our  May  flies  living  only  a  few  hours.  With  some  few 


2l6  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

of  the  May  flies,  a  moulting  occurs  after  acquiring  wings; 
this  is  called  a  subimago  stage,  and  is  a  phenomenon  not 
known  to  occur  elsewhere.  This  stage  may  last  from  a 
few  minutes  to  twenty- four  hours.  Such  unusual  exten- 
sions of  the  adult  stage  as  are  known  to  occur,  seem  to 
have  relation  to  this  subimago  stage,  the  adult  life  of  the 
different  species  after  this  subadult  moult  is  undergone, 
being  nearly  uniform  in  length. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
PLECOPTERA. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  stone  flies.  In  the  same 
water  with  the  May  flies,  possibly,  but  where  the  water 
runs  swiftest,  may  be  found  some  nymphs  that  look  very 
much  like  the  May  fly  nymphs,  but  the  bodies  are  flatter 
and  darker,  and  show  some  light  and  dark  stripes. 
These  are  the  stone-fly  nymphs,  and  they  cling  to  the 
under  side  of  stones,  whence  their  name.  They  cling 
where  the  water  current  is  swiftest,  but  when  pursued, 
they  run  very  swiftly,  and  disappear  under  other  stones 
with  amazing  rapidity. 

The  nymphs  breathe  by  means  of  thoracic  gills,  one 
tuft  of  filaments  or  one  single  filament  to  each  leg.  The 
remains  of  these  gills  may  be  seen  in  the  adults  of  some 
species.  The  feet  of  the  stone  flies  are  provided  with  two 
claws,  while  the  May  flies  have  but  one.  The  larvae, 
so  far  as  they  have  been  observed,  are  active  and  well 
able  to  defend  themselves.  They  are  carnrvwous  as  to 
food  habits,  with  strong  biting  mouth  parts,  the  same  as 
the  adults.  The  number  of  eggs  laid  by  the  females  is  enor- 
mous, seeming  to  indicate  that  the  larvae  must  take  many 
chances  of  being  eaten;  and  this  is  true.  For,  although 
the  nymphs  are  better  able  to  protect  themselves  than  the 
May-fly  nymphs,  yet  great  numbers  of  them  are  eaten  by 
various  enemies,  fish,  dragonfly  nymphs,  and  water  birds. 

The  body  of  the  adult  stone  fly  is  rather  long  and 
flattish,  and  soft-walled.  Its  wings  are  membranous, 
but  the  hind  wings  are  larger  than  the  front  wings;  and 

217 


2l8 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


when  the  insect  is  resting  on  some  grass  stem,  the  hind 
wings  are  plaited  and  the  front  wings  lie  flat  on  the  back. 
The  antennae  are  thread-like  and  reach  far  out  in  front  of 
the  head. 

None  of  the  stone  flies  has  a  well-known  life  history. 
They  seem  to  reproduce  by  a  metamorphosis  much  like 
that  of  the  dragon  flies.  Their  food  habits  are  not 


FIG.  89. — Nymph  and  adult  of  a  stone  fly,  Pteronarcys  regalis.     A,  nymph  (after 
Newport) ;  B,  imago.     (Slightly  reduced.    Folsom.) 

certainly  known ;  they  probably  eat  other  forms  of  aquatic 
life;  but  some  observers  who  have  made  a  somewhat 
extended  study  of  them,  say  that  they  also  seem  to  be 
scavengers,  eating  decaying  organic  matter.  Small  stone 
flies  are  less  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  while  the 
larger  species  are  two  inches  long.  Here  is  a  field  for 
investigation  for  someone  who  likes  to  be  much  in  the 
open,  and  who  is  in  sympathy  with  life  in  its  manifold 
phases  and  activities. 


NEUROPTERA. 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  Wings  four,  many- veined,  sometimes  spotted  with  con- 
trasting colors.     The  main  vein  of  the  wing  is  usually 
some  distance  from  the  front  margin  of  the  wing,  and 
the  space  is  crossed  by  many  oblique,  parallel  veins. 

2.  Mandibles   strong;   in   the    male  sometimes  enormously 
enlarged. 

False  Rear  Horses. 

1.  Wing-covers    usually   shorter    than   the   abdomen   and 
bending  around  it,  not  lying  flat  on  the  back  as  in  the 
praying  mantids. 

2.  Front  legs  much  larger  than  the  other  two  pairs,  and  used 
for  seizing  the  prey. 

3.  Prothorax  long  and  slender;  the  front  pair  of  legs  fastened 
well  forward  at  its  front,  so  as  to  bring  them  close  up  to 
the  head. 


219 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
NEUROPTERA. 

In  the  order  as  first  established  by  Linnaeus,  were  in- 
cluded the  May  flies,  the  dragon  flies,  the  caddis  flies,  and 
some  other  insects  to  be  mentioned  later.  At  present,  the 
May  flies,  with  their  flat,  external  abdominal  gills,  form 
the  order  of  the  Ephemerida;  the  stone  flies,  with  their 
filamentous,  thoracic  gills,  their  ocelli  as  well  as  compound 
eyes,  and  their  inability  to  live  in  stagnant  water,  form 
the  order  Plecoptera;  the  dragon  flies,  with  their  internal 
rectal  gills  in  the  larval  stage,  their  peculiar  aerating 
system,  and  their  strong  adult  wings,  form  the  order 
Odonata;  the  caddis  flies,  or  caddis  worms,  after  their 
more  familiar  larval  appearance,  form  the  order  Trichop- 
tera;  while  the  lace- winged  flies,  the  dobsons,  the  ant  lions, 
and  the  scorpion  flies  are  left  to  make  up  the  order 
Neuroptera. 

All  the  insects  of  the  order  have  net- veined  wings, 
strong  mouth  parts,  either  for  biting  or  piercing,  and  a 
development  by  complete  metamorphosis.  So  far  as 
known,  the  members  of  the  order  are  carnivorous  in  their 
feeding  habits,  and  many  of  them  are  aquatic  in  the  larval 
stage.  The  snake  flies,  rather  rare  insects  with  the  pro- 
thorax  slender  and  curved,  making  them  look  humpbacked, 
feed  largely  upon  the  larvae  of  the  codling  moth,  one  of  our 
worst  apple-tree  pests.  The  aphis  lion,  in  its  larval  stage, 
crawls  about  over  the  surface  of  plants  infested  with  plant 
lice  and  makes  short  work  of  them.  Later  in  the  summer, 

221 


222 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


there  will  possibly  be  found  the  eggs  of  some  aphis  lion 
on  the  leaves  of  some  louse-infested  plant.  Always  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  or  stem,  and  standing  on 
slender,  swaying,  translucent  stalks,  the  greenish  eggs 
look  curious  enough.  (Fig.  90.)  The  reason  for  the  plac- 
ing of  the  eggs  in  such  a  situation 
is  plain  enough  when  one  finds 
out  by  watching  that  the  young 
aphis  lion  is  fond  of  an  egg  diet, 
prefers  it  to  anything  else,  and 
the  egg  containing  his  brother  or 
his  sister  tastes  quite  as  good  to 
him  as  does  any  other  egg.  The 
aphis  lion  mother,  instead  of 
trying  to  break  up  the  egg-eating 
habit,  simply  builds  a  stalk  for 
each  egg,  and  glues  the  egg  fast 
to  the  top  of  it.  The  young 
aphis  lion  upon  hatching  out, 
crawls  down  to  the  leaf  surface, 
and  goes  off  to  seek  for  other 
eggs  for  his  meals,  all  uncon- 
scious of  the  rich  feast  so  close 
at  hand. 

The  adult  aphis  lion  is  a  beautiful,  lacy-winged  fly, 
with  greenish  body  and  delicate  white  wings  with  iri- 
descent hues  shimmering  from  them  at  every  turn  of  the 
owner.  The  eyes  are  large  for  the  size  of  the  adult,  and, 
while  the  lace- wing  is  alive,  are  bright  golden  in  color; 
for  this  reason  the  lace-wing  is  often  called  the  Golden- 
eye.  The  adult  probably  has  similar  feeding  habits  to 
those  of  the  larva. 

The  larvae  of  the  dobsons  are  well  known  to  fishermen 


FIG.  90. — A  lace-winged 
fly,  Chrysopa,  laying  eggs. 
(Slightly  enlarged.  Folsom.} 


NEUROPTERA.  223 

in  the  eastern  states,  and  they  are  occasionally  found  in 
ponds  in  the  West.  The  adult  form  is  the  form  more 
commonly  found,  however,  because  the  small  boy  in  the 
West  more  often  uses  angleworms  for  bait,  and  so  does 
not  discover  the  dobsons  till  later  in  life.  The  adult  has  a 
wing  spread  of  more  than,  four  inches,  the  wings  are 
translucent  with  veins  showing  quite 
plainly,  and  irregularly  spotted  with  light 
and  dark.  The  hind  wings  are  larger 
than  the  front  wings  and  are  enlarged 
considerably  at  the  angle  next  to  the 
body ;  hence,  when  folded,  they  are  some- 
what plaited,  while  the  front  wings  lie 
flat  above  them. 

The  dobsons  have  a  very  long  im- 
mature stage,  two  years  and  eleven 
months,  all  spent  in  the  water,  hunting 
fiercely  for  May  fly  and  stone  fly  larvas. 
The  pupal  stage  covers  another  month; 
hence  the  insect  consumes  three  years  in 
growing  to  adulthood  in  size  and  power.  FlG-  91-— Larva  of 

TM  j_    1         •          j  1        1  j_  •  a  dobson.  (Kelto??.) 

The  insect  having  the  longest  immature 
period  is  probably  the  seventeen- year  cicada,  which  re- 
mains in  its  underground  burrow,  feeding  on  plant  roots, 
for  seventeen  years.  The  male  of  the  dobsons  has  the 
mandibles  developed  into  long  curved  organs  standing  far 
out  in  front  of  the  head ;  in  the  female  the  mandibles  are 
less  prominent.  (Fig.  92.) 

Here  also  are  to  be  found  the  false  rear  horses,  insects 
much  resembling  the  praying  mantids  among  the  Orth- 
optera.  Their  long  front  legs,  by  which  they  catch  their 
prey,  look  very  much  like  the  queer  "hands"  of  the  pray- 
ing mantis  when  he  perches  on  your  magazine  cover  and 


224  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

looks  solemnly  at  you ;  and  the  rear  horse  is  quite  as  blood- 
thirsty as  the  mantis .  The  front  part  of  the  thorax  is  drawn 
out  into  a  slender,  stick-like  segment,  and  on  the  front  end 


FIG.  92. — Adult  dobson,  with  head  of  female  above.     (Kellogg.} 

of  this  are  placed  the  big,  grasping  front  legs.  This 
gives  the  insect  the  queer  appearance  of  having  its  front 
legs  fastened  to  its  small  head.  The  other  two  pairs  of 


NEUROPTERA.  225 

legs  are  bunched  at  the  further  end  of  the  thorax  near 
the  abdomen.     (Fig.  93.) 

The  ant  lion  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  members 
of  the  order  while  it  is  in  its  larval  stage.  The  adult 
ant  lion  lays  her  egg  in  the  sand;  and  the  larva,  im- 
mediately upon  hatching,  digs  for  itself  a  pit  in  the  sand, 
hollowing  it  out  carefully  and  smoothing  off  the  sloping 
sides.  Then  it  carefully  digs  under  at  the  bottom  of  this 
pit,  leaving  nothing  of  itself  visible  except  its  head  and 


FIG.  93. — A  false  rear  horse  or  mantispa. 

sharp  jaws.  There  it  lies,  quietly,  but  keeping  sharp 
watch ;  and  when  an  ant  comes  scurrying  along  with  some 
big  burden,  intent  only  upon  getting  home,  over  it  goes 
into  the  pit,  the  treacherous  sand  giving  way  under  its 
feet.  After  many  more  meals  of  the  same  kind,  the  old 
larva  hollows  out  for  itself  a  burrow  in  the  sand,  lines 
it  with  silken  threads,  and  there  pupates.  The  adult 
has  four  membranous  wings,  thickly  crossed  with  veins 
and  usually  more  or  less  spotted  with  brown  or  black. 

All  of  the  members  of  the  order  are  valuable  insects, 
feeding  upon  other  insects  which  are  harmful ;  hence  none 
of  the  order  should  be  carelessly  hunted,  nor  killed 
without  good  and  sufficient  reason. 

15 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
SIPHONAPTERA. 

This  order  includes  but  one  class  of  insects,  the  fleas. 
By  early  entomologists,  the  fleas  were  classed  as  a  family 
of  the  Dipt  era,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  structurally 
flies  that  had  lost  their  wings  through  a  process  of  degen- 
eration, growing  out  of  an  increasing  habit  of  parasitism. 
But  their  structural  differences  are  now  known  to  be  so 
great  that  they  are  made  to  occupy  an  order  by  them- 
selves. 

They  are  parasitic  upon  mammals  and  birds;  hardly 
any  warm-blooded  animals  are  exempt  from  their  attacks. 
The  order,  at  present,  consists  of  but  a  single  family,  the 
Pulicidae.  The  insects  are  wingless,  and  have  piercing, 
sucking  mouth  parts.  The  body  surface  is  heavily 
chitinized  and  smooth,  but  is  regularly  set  with  spiny 
hairs.  The  body  is  much  flattened  vertically,  a  fact  that 
makes  it  easy  for  the  insect  to  pass  readily  between  the 
hairs  of  the  dog,  cat,  or  bear  host,  and  also  makes  it 
difficult  to  catch  them. 

Among  the  most  curious  of  the  Siphonaptera  are  the 
jigger  fleas,  insects  more  common  in  warm  countries  than 
in  our  own  latitude.  The  male  jigger  flea  is  winged,  and 
leaps  on  or  off  the  body  of  the  host ;  but  the  female  lives 
on  the  body  of  the  host  nearly  her  entire  lifetime.  When 
the  female  is  ready  to  lay  her  eggs,  she  burrows  beneath 
the  skin  of  the  host,  which  may  be  one  of  the  lower  animals 

226 


SIPHONAPTERA.  227 

or  a  human  being.  The  body  of  the  female,  congested 
with  the  egg  burden,  bursts  in  the  burrow  thus  made, 
and  the  larvae  hatching  from  the  eggs  feed  upon  the 
blood  of  the  host  until  the  time  for  pupation.  This 
period  is  also  passed  through  in  the  burrow  underneath 
the  skin  of  the  victim;  and  the  adults  emerge  through 
the  festering  wound  to  seek  new  places  where  they  may 
make  new  burrows  and  rear  new  jigger  flea  families. 
Oftentimes,  the  irritation  incident  to  the  rearing  of  these 
jigger  flea  families  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  death  of  the 
host.  This  flea  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  chigger 
of  our  western  plains  and  lawns.  The  latter  animal  does 
not  belong  to  the  insects  at  all,  but  is  one  of  the  mites,  ha§ 
eight  legs  instead  of  six,  and  a  differently- segmented  body. 
It  ought  to  be  noted  here  that  the  female  of  the  hen  flea 
also  burrows  beneath  the  skin  of  the  host,  and  the  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  small  tumor  that  forms  around  the  body 
of  the  insect. 

The  Siphonaptera  include  also  the  human  flea,  the 
dog  and  the  hen  flea,  and  the  fleas  infesting  so  many  of  our 
wild  mammals,  also  birds  and  domestic  animals.  These 
fleas  are  parasitic  only  during  the  adult  stage,  and  then 
mainly  at  meal  time. 

The  eggs  of  the  dog  flea  are  laid  between  the  hairs 
of  the  host,  from  whence  they  drop  to  the  ground  and 
hatch  among  the  refuse  and  dust.  The  larva?  seem  to 
feed  on  organic  matter,  though  they  are  more  adaptable 
than  most  other  insects,  being  able  to  develop  on  other 
food,  such  as  dry  plant  remains,  epidermal  scales  from 
the  body  of  the  host,  and  possibly  excrementitious  matter 
from  adult  fleas.  Some  fleas  have  been  reared  artificially 
on  dried  crumbs  or  dried  blood.  The  time  of  develop- 
ment of  fleas  ranges  from  less  than  two  weeks  to  consid- 


228 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


erably  more  than  two  weeks  in  different  species,  though 
for  the  majority  of  our  native  fleas,  the  time  of  develop- 
ment is  about  two  weeks. 

The  eggs  of  the  human  flea,  Pulex  irritans,  are  laid 
in  the  house  around  the  edges  of  the  carpet  or  in  the  cracks 


FIG.  94. — Egg,  pupa,  and  adult  of  the  cat  and  dog  flea.     Pulex  serraticeps. 

(Howard.) 

of  the  floor;  here  the  hatching  larvae  feed  upon  such  food 
as  offers  itself  in  such  places,  lint  and  shreds  of  clothing, 
scales  of  epidermis,  and  other  organic  or  inorganic  dust 
components.  Human  beings  are  also  molested  by  the 
dog  flea.  The  dog  flea  is  provided  with  a  row  of  stiff  hairs 
projecting  backward  from  each  segment  of  the  abdomen; 
while  the  human  flea  lacks  these  hairs.  The  whole 


SIPHONAPTERA.  229 

development  of  the  human  flea  requires  about  a  month 
from  the  time  the  eggs  are  laid. 

In  tropical  countries,  the  flea  which  infests  the  rat 
is  very  closely  related  to  the  human  flea.  This  consti- 
tutes a  serious  menace  to  the  health  of  our  sea-coast 
communities.  Rats  are  known  to  be  distributors  of  the 
bubonic  plague  in  their  own  country;  and  rats  crossing 
the  ocean  from  any  of  these  countries,  soon  spread  the 
infection  among  the  rats  where  they  land.  San  Francisco 
has  had  to  fight  this  horror  more  than  once.  Unde- 
sirable people  are  not  the  only  undesirable  things  we  re- 
ceive from  foreign  shores. 


PART  II. 
ARTHROPODA  EXCLUSIVE  OF  THE  INSECTS. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
NEAR  RELATIVES  OF  INSECTS. 

Myriapoda— Millipeds  and  Centipeds. 

These  are  air-breathing  arthropods,  having  the  head 
distinct  from  the  thorax.  The  thorax  and  the  abdomen 
form  one  continuous  region  with  from  six  to  two  hundred 
segments  in  different  representatives,  each  segment 
bearing  at  least  one  pair  of  legs.  The  millipeds  and  the 
centipeds  constitute  a  class  of  the  Arthropoda,  some  of 
which  are  harmless,  some  harmful,  and  some  of  them 
of  real  benefit  to  mankind. 

Millipeds. 

These  myriapods  have  two  pairs  of  legs  on  each 
segment  of  the  body  except  the  front  three.  The  body  in 
most  of  the  representatives  is  cylindrical,  the  antennae  short 
and  few- jointed.  Millipeds  may  be  found  in  damp  places, 
under  leaves,  or  when  one  turns  over  a  stone  or  a  board. 
Occasionally  one  sees  on  the  sidewalk  a  reddish-brown, 
cylindrical  "worm" ;  and  if  you  touch  it,  it  will  curl  up  and 
lie  perfectly  motionless  with  the  numerous  legs  on  the 
inside  of  the  curl,  as  if  to  persuade  you  that  it  is  dead 

231 


232 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


anyway  and  you  might  as  well  go  on  about  your  business. 
And  if  you  pretend  to  do  so,  it  will  after  some  time  uncurl 
and  scurry  away.  (Fig.  95 .)  If  it  is  smart  enough  to  do  this, 
you  would  better  let  it  run— you  would  hardly  have  nerve 
enough  to  get  away  from  your  enemy  that  way;  besides, 


FIG.  95. — A  milliped,  Spirobolus  marginatus.     Natural  size.     (Folsom.) 

this  milliped,  like  many  others  of  its  kind,  feeds  on  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter,  which  constitutes  another  reason 
why  you  should  let  it  alone. 

Centipeds. 

These  myriapods  have  but  one  pair  of  legs  to  each 
abdominal  segment ;  the  body  is  usually  flattened,  and  the 
antennae  are  long  and  many- jointed.  (Fig.  96.)  Centipeds 
are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  abound  in 
the  United  States,  the  species  in  the  southern  states  being 
generally  venomous,  while  the  species  native  at  the  North 
are  small  and  rarely  inflict  injury  upon  their  human 
neighbors. 

The  centipeds  are  all  predaceous,  feeding  upon  insects, 
and  also  upon  fruit  and  other  plant  food  occasionally  if 


NEAR   RELATIVES    OF   INSECTS. 


233 


they  are  southern  centipeds.  In  the  North,  one  may 
look  for  them  under  stones,  logs,  and  bark.  One  species 
is  often  found  running  about  over  the  house  walls.  It 
is  a  very  swift  runner,  has 
very  long  legs,  and  only  fifteen 
pairs  of  them .  These  legs  drop 
off  easily  if  the  centiped  is 
touched,  and  remain  sensitive 
for  some  time.  This  centiped 
is  sometimes  called  the  cock- 
roach tiger,  and  it  has  never 
been  known  to  bite  a  human 
being.  Its  scientific  name  is 
Cermatia  forceps. 

It  has  remarkably  long 
antennae,  longer  than  the  body, 
and  these  seem  to  be  ex- 
tremely sensitive.  They  are 
carried  forward  when  the 
animal  is  exploring  things, 
and  are  waved  gently  up  and 
down  when  the  animal  stops 
after  having  been  disturbed. 
A  Cermatia  recently  experi- 
mented upon,  had  a  wet  leaf 
thrust  in  its  path  so  that  the 
leaf  touched  the  tip  of  one  of 
its  antennas.  It  stopped  ab- 
ruptly, threw  the 


FIG.  96. — A  centiped,  Scolopendra 
antenna  heros-      About  two-thirds  the  maxi- 
mum length.     (Folsom.) 

which  had  been  touched  in  a 

long  loop  backward  and  upward,  remaining  in  this  position 
for  some  time  with  the  antenna  which  had  not  been  touched 
straight  out  in  front  of  the  head  and  quivering  slightly. 


234  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

Acarina — Mites  and  Ticks. 

These  Arthropods  have  the  abdomen  unsegmented 
and  fused  with  the  thorax.  They  include  the  mites  and 
the  ticks.  The  majority  of  them  are  very  small,  though 
some  of  the  ticks  reach  considerable  size.  All  mites, 
except  one  family,  hatch  from  eggs.  In  the  case  of  this 
exceptional  mite  family,  the  eggs  remain  in  the  adult 
body  after  cell  division  in  the  egg  begins,  and  until  the 
segmentation  of  the  young  mite  into  head  and  abdomeno- 
thoracic  regions  with  rudimentary  legs.  These  young 
mites — or  larvae,  properly  speaking — are  then  discharged 
to  begin  their  separate,  individual  existence. 

Young  mites  usually  have  three  pairs  of  legs,  but 
develop  a  fourth  pair  while  maturing.  Some  mites 
produce  galls  similar  to  those  produced  by  the  gallflies, 
but  there  is  always  an  opening  through  which  the  young 
mite  escapes.  The  itch  mite  infests  the  human  tribe  and 
burrows  beneath  the  skin.  With  the  exception  of  the 
mite  which  infests  pear  trees,  all  mites  have  four  pairs 
of  legs.  The  cattle  tick  is  a  true  Acarina,  but  the  sheep 
tick  is  a  dipterous  insect. 

Mites  are  sometimes  found  on  plants.  The  best- 
known  plant  mite  is  the  so-called  red  spider  which  so 
often  injures  house  plants.  In  a  dry  summer  it  will 
sometimes  attack  fruit  trees.  It  thrives  only  in  a  hot, 
dry  atmosphere;  hence  the  effective  treatment  of  the 
pest  is  water  and  plenty  of  it,  sprayed  onto  the  under 
as  well  as  the  upper  sides  of  the  leaves.  The  mite  seems 
to  work  mainly  from  the  lower  side,  up  through  the  juicy, 
green  portion  of  the  leaf,  leaving  the  remaining  upper 
part  to  wither  and  drop  off. 


NEAR    RELATIVES    OF   INSECTS.  235 

Phalangina — Harvestmen  or  Daddy  Longlegs. 

These  Arthropods  may  be  recognized  by  their  very 
long  legs,  though  some  members  of  the  class  have  much 
shorter  legs,  while  resembling  the  typical  harvestmen 
in  the  general  body  structure.  The  head  and  the  thorax 
are  fused  to  form  the  cephalo- thorax,  with  hardly 
perceptible  segments  or  none  at  all.  The  harvestmen 
have  two  simple  eyes,  and  instead  of  these  being  placed 
in  the  usual  position  as  modified  portions  of  the  body 
Wall,  they  are  placed  on  long  tubercles  near  the  middle 
of  the  cephalo-thorax.  The  respiratory  system  opens 
on  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body,  just  where  the  cephalo- 
thorax  and  the  abdomen  join. 

Although  these  ''Grandfather  Graybeards,"  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,  are  so  easily  caught,  they  have  a 
means  of  protection  in  the  ill-smelling  fluid  which  they 
eject  when  they  are  disturbed.  This  defense  is  effective 
in  the  case  of  most  birds.  A  bird  has  to  be  hard-pushed  to 
eat  so  ill-smelling  a  thing.  They  are  not  strictly  nocturnal 
in  their  habits,  yet  they  avoid  hunting  in  the  broad 
daylight.  Instead  of  being  unfriendly  to  their  own  kind, 
as  the  true  spiders  are,  several  of  these  harvestmen  may 
frequently  be  seen  close-gathered  in  some  half-lighted 
corner;  and  occasionally  they  seem  to  hunt  in  companies. 
Their  prey  consists  of  small  insects,  especially  the  green 
plant  lice,  which  are  such  pests  of  garden  plants.  The 
Phalangina  are  really  beneficial  Arthropoda,  and  little 
children  ought  to  be  taught  to  protect  them  from  harm. 

Solpugida — Jointed  Spiders. 

These  differ  from  all  the  other  Arthropods,  except 
the  insects,  in  having  the  head  separate  from  the  thorax, 
and  in  having  the  thorax  divided  into  the  three  familiar 


236  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

segments,  pro-,  meso-,  and  meta-thorax ;  in  each  of  which 
characteristics  they  resemble  the  insects.  In  general 
appearance,  they  look  very  much  like  spiders,  but  because 
of  these  insect-like  segments,  they  are  called  jointed 
spiders.  The  Solpugida  of  the  western  states  are  found 
in  sandy  regions,  and  are  tawny  and  light  brown  in  color. 
Their  mandibles  stand  straight  out  in  front  of  the  head, 
and  only  the  pincers  of  the  mandibles  are  directed  down- 
ward, which  is  the  position  of  the  mandibles  in  the  true 
spiders. 

The  maxillary  palpi  are  very  long,  and  besides  being 
used  as  guides  to  food  selection,  are  also  used  as  sensory 
organs  to  warn  of  danger,  and  as  organs  of  locomotion. 
The  front  legs  are  without  claws  and  are  provided  with 
sense  hairs,  that  is,  hairs  capable  of  conveying  sense 
impressions.  So  far  as  observation  may  be  depended 
upon,  these  legs  are  often  used  as  palpi. 

With  relation  to  the  fact  that  the  maxillary  palpi 
and  the  front  legs  may  be  interchangeable  in  function,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  on  the  basis  of  specialization  of 
organs  these  arthropods  must  be  of  lower  rank  than  are 
the  arthropods  in  which  there  is  no  such  shifting  of 
function.  Accurate  bases  for  classifying  living  beings 
rest  upon  two  supports,  structural  specialization  and 
mode  of  reproduction;  and  on  these  two  bases  the 
jointed  spiders  would  be  classed  lower  than  the  true 
spiders.  They  are  rare;  they  eat  small  insects,  and  have 
never  been  known  to  poison  by  their  bite. 

Scorpions  and  False  Scorpions. 

The  true  scorpions  have  the  thorax  unsegmented,  the 
head  fused  with  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen  differentiated 
into  two  portions — a  pre-abdomen,  broad  and  consisting 


NEAR   RELATIVES    OF   INSECTS. 


237 


of  seven  segments;  and  the  post-abdomen,  slender  and 
tail-like,  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  poison  sting. 

The  false  scorpions  have  no  such  differentiation  of 
the  abdomen,  and  there  is  no  sting  at  the  anal  end  of  the 

abdomen.    False  scorpions j 

live  under  tree  bark,  in 
mosses,  or  they  may  occa- 
sionally be  found  between 
the  leaves  of  some  book 
that  has  lain  unused  for  a 
long  time.  The  true  scor- 
pions may  be  found  in 
sandy  regions,  around  old 
stone  quarries,  or  other 
places  not  usually  fre- 
quented by  their  human 
neighbors.  (Fig.  97.) 

Scorpions  bring  forth 
their  young  alive,  and  the 
young  are  carried  about 
by  the  mother  for  some 
time.  They  attach  them- 
selves to  the  mother  .  by 
their  pincer-like  mandi- 
bles. The  adult  scorpions 


FIG.  97. — A  scorpion,  Buthus.    Natural 
size.     (Folsom.) 


are  nocturnal,  and  feed 
upon  spiders  and  insects, 
which  they  first  sting  to 
death. 

The  whip-tailed  scorpion  is  found  in  the  far  South- 
west, New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  This  is  the  largest  of 
the  scorpions,  measuring  four  or  even  five  inches  in  length. 
The  palpi  are  enormously  enlarged  into  stout  pincers 


238  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

which  curve  forward  in  front  of  the  head,  and  make  one's 
fingers  ache  even  to  look  at  them.  The  body  is  dark 
brown  and  rather  heavily  chitinized,  even  in  the  pre- 
' abdomen.  The  post-abdomen  is  much  slenderer  than  in 
the  common  scorpions.  They  destroy  their  prey  by 
crushing  it  in  their  powerful  palpi;  hence  it  would  seem 
that  their  sting  is  less  a  means  of  defense  than  is  the  sting 
of  the  common  scorpions. 

Spiders. 

Spiders  are  not  insects,  though  they  are  closely 
related  to  them.  According  to  Comstock,  the  Arthropoda 
are  to  be  divided  into  the  Crustacea,  the  Myriapoda,  the 
Hexapoda,  and  the  Arachnida.  The  Crustacea  include 
the  familiar  crayfish,  or  "crawdads,"  and  the  lobsters,  the 
shrimps,  and  the  crabs  of  our  sea-coasts.  The  division 
also  includes  the  familiar  pill  bugs,  light  gray,  round- 
backed  creatures  with  a  shell  covering  the  dorsal  surface 
of  the  body.  They  have  numerous  legs,  and  when  they 
are  frightened  they  curl  up  in  a  ball,  shell  outward,  looking, 
as  their  name  implies,  like  a  shiny  pill.  They  are  found 
in  damp  places,  under  the  bark  of  old  logs,  near  wood  piles, 
or  under  rotting  boards.  Their  food  seems  to  be  decaying 
wood  or  other  vegetable  substances. 

The  Myriapoda  have  been  seen  to  consist  of  the  milli- 
peds  and  the  centipeds,  The  Hexapoda  are  the  six- 
legged  Arthropoda  or  the  insects;  and  the  Arachnida,  then, 
would  include  the  scorpions,  true  and  false,  the  jointed 
spiders,  the  harvestmen,  mites  and  ticks,  and  the  spiders. 
The  spiders  differ  from  the  insects  not  only  in  the  possession 
of  an  extra  pair  of  legs,  but  also  in  the  structure  of  the 
body.  The  head  is  fused  with  the  thorax,  making  the 
cephalo- thorax,  which  is  not  segmented.  The  abdomen 


NEAR   RELATIVES    OF   INSECTS.  239 

is  also  unsegmented,  and  is  joined  to  the  cephalo-thorax 
by  a  slender  stalk.  At  the  base  of  the  abdomen  are 
located  the  openings  of  the  respiratory  system ;  and  at  the 
apex  of  the  abdomen  are  located  the  external  organs  of 
the  spinning  mechanism  peculiar  to  spiders. 

The  appendages  of  the  head  are  the  labium,  the 
maxillae,  the  mandibles,  and  the  palpi.  The  mandibles 
are  two- jointed;  and  near  the  point  of  the  second  claw- 
like  segment  there  is  a  small  opening,  the  outlet  of  the 
poison  gland.  This  poison  kills  or  disables  the  insect 
victim;  but  its  effect  upon  the  human  family  differs  in 
different  cases,  ranging  from  no  effect  whatever  to  serious 
inflammation  in  some  cases.  Possibly  it  may  be  with 
spider  bites  as  we  say  of  liability  to  a  disease.  We 
desire  to  believe,  and  it  may  be  a  tenable  theory,  that  the 
perfectly  healthy  person  is  immune  from  all  disease,  the 
natural  warders  of  the  body,  the  white  blood  corpuscles, 
being  in  such  a  person  present  in  such  numbers  as  to  be 
capable  of  disposing  of  all  disease  germs  that  may  enter 
the  system,  with  safety  to  the  individual. 

The  walls  of  the  cephalo-thorax  are  heavily  chitinized. 
From  this  portion  arise  the  four  pairs  of  legs;  and  here 
must  also  be  attached  the  many  muscles  used  in  the  swift 
movements  of  the  spider.  The  abdomen  is  soft  and  non- 
chitinized.  The  legs  consist  typically  of  seven  segments 
—coxa,  trochanter,  femur,  patella,  tibia,  tarsus,  and 
metatarsus.  The  tarsus  is  usually  composed  of  several 
segments,  and  is  one-,  two-,  or  three-clawed. 

Spiders  breathe  as  insects  do,  by  means  of  tracheae; 
but  to  the  tracheae  are  added  two  sack-like  cavities,  in 
which  are  numerous  plates  called  pulmonary  lamellae. 
These  sacks  are  really  rudimentary  lungs  and  have  their 
openings  on  the  front  ventral  surface  of  the  abdomen; 


240  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

among  the  plates  the  air  is  kept  in  constant  motion,  and 
in  the  spaces  between  them  the  interchange  of  oxygen 
for  carbonic  acid  gas  takes  place.  The  heart  has 
branches  along  the  sides  through  which  the  blood  is 
sucked  in,  and  finally  the  blood  passes  through  these 
sack-like  lungs.  The  tracheary  system  also  has  its  sepa- 
rate openings,  two  of  them  farther  back  on  the  abdomen, 
near  the  anal  end. 

Unlike  the  insects,  most  spiders  do  not  swallow  their 
victim,  but  chew  the  body  and  suck  at  it  until  it  is  little 
more  than  a  mass  of  dry  shreds.  One  may  occasionally 
find  in  a  spider's  web  the  body  remnant  of  some  insect 
which  has  been  so  disposed  of.  Spiders  are  able  to  go 
for  long  periods  of  time  without  food;  this  is  fortunate, 
for  they  must  set  their  traps  and  wait  for  an  insect  foolish 
enough  to  fall  into  them.  They  are  not  gregarious  in  the 
least  degree;  each  spider  jealously  guards  its  own  food 
traps.  Of  course,  in  so  doing,  it  simply  obeys  the  neces- 
sary instinct  of  food-getting,  and  serves  the  law  of  self- 
preservation.  Even  the  male  and  the  female  spiders  are 
bitter  enemies  for  most  of  their  lives.  The  male  of  any 
species  may  usually  be  known  by  the  fact  that  he  has 
longer  legs  and  a  slenderer  abdomen — a  fortunate 
provision  that  often  saves  him  from  being  eaten  by  the 
fiercer  and  hungry  female. 

The  sense  of  touch  seems  to  be  well  developed.  A 
spider,  waiting  for  a  bite,  sits  patiently  in  its  web,  if  it 
is  of  the  web-spinning  sort.  The  wind  may  shake  the 
web,  a  twig  may  fall  through  it,  and  the  spider  pays  no 
attention.  But  let  even  a  small  insect  hit  one  of  the 
gossamer  threads,  and  the  alert  spider  is  on  its  victim 
in  an  instant,  either  binding  it  with  threads  newly- spun, 
if  it  is  large  and  threatens  to  tear  the  web  and  escape,  or 


NEAR   RELATIVES    OF   INSECTS.  241 

at  once  killing  it  in  preparation  for  the  feast.  In  locating 
the  exact  place  of  the  insect  in  its  web,  the  spider  appears 
to  use  the  sense  of  touch,  telling  from  this  sense  which 
thread  is  vibrating,  and  thus  running  small  risk  of  losing 
its  victim. 

Not  all  spiders  spin  webs  to  trap  their  prey.  Some 
of  them  stalk  their  victims  through  the  grass  or  in  the 
usual  lurking  places  of  insects  in  barn  or  house.  One  of 
the  light-colored  crab  spiders  was  recently  observed  to 
run  down  the  cord  of  a  window  curtain,  and  pounce  upon 
a  luckless  fly,  sunning  itself  on  the  cord.  These  crab 
spiders  seem  to  be  less  afraid  of  human  beings  than  are 
most  spiders.  The  author  has  several  times  offered  one 
of  them  a  fly  and  it  accommodatingly  stood  still  and  let  its 
human  friends  see  it  eat.  When  a  second  fly  was  offered, 
it  seized  the  second  and  at  the  same  time  attempted  to 
hold  on  to  the  first. 

The  trap-door  spiders  live  in  sandy  or  clayey  soils, 
and  instead  of  spinning  webs  they  stalk  their  prey  and 
then  take  it  to  their  home  to  eat  it  at  their  leisure. 
Their  home  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  places  of  abode 
made  by  the  Arthropoda.  It  consists  of  a  burrow  dug 
in  the  fine  clay  soil,  and  lined  with  a  soft  silken  lining, 
the  product  of  the  spider's  own  industry.  The  opening 
to  the  burrow  is  closed  by  a  lid,  which  fits  tightly  over  the 
opening  and  is  made  of  silken  threads  and  soil,  so  disposed 
over  and  among  them  that  the  top  of  it  looks  exactly 
like  the  ground  about  the  nest  or  burrow.  The  lid  is 
hung  to  the  side  of  the  burrow  by  a  hinge  also  made  of 
the  silk  threads.  When  disturbed  on  the  hunt,  instead 
of  standing  and  showing  fight,  these  spiders  run  to  the 
mouth  of  their  burrow,  pop  inside,  turn  partly  around, 
and  hold  to  their  trap  door  with  the  two  front  claws  while 

16 


242  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

holding  on  to  the  walls  of  the  burrow  with  the  hind  pairs  of 
legs;  and  travelers  say  that  one  may  more  easily  pull 
the  lid  off  the  hinge  than  to  pull  a  spider  loose  while 
she  is  thus  guarding  her  burrow. 

The  sense  of  sight  seems  to  be  but  feebly  developed 
in  spiders,  but  they  appear  to  be  very  sensitive  to  light 
as  opposed  to  darkness.  Spiders  have  no  compound 
eyes,  but  have  instead  an  unusual  number  of  simple  eyes, 
eight  in  most  of  the  families.  The  object  moving  is 
pictured  in  quick  succession  by  the  numerous  simple  eyes, 
and  the  spider  quickly  takes  the  alarm  and  runs  away. 
Whether  spiders  hear  or  smell  is  not  known ;  at  least  there 
appears  to  be  no  unmistakable  evidence  of  the  fact. 

The  habit  of  spinning  for  trapping  food  would  dis- 
tinguish spiders  from  insects  if  there  were  no  other 
distinguishing  traits.  Many  of  the  lepidopterous  insects 
spin  cocoons  when  ready  to  pupate,  and  the  cocoon  of 
the  silk- worm  is  made  of  gossamer- fine  threads;  other 
insects  can  spin  some  sort  of  a  pupal  case,  and  some 
worms  will  let  themselves  down  out  of  harm's  way  by  a 
spun  thread.  But  as  a  means  of  gaining  a  livelihood,  and 
as  spinners  of  threads  consisting  of  still  finer  strands 
drawn  into  one  composite  thread,  the  spiders  are  unique. 
The  uses  made  of  this  spun  silk  are  numerous.  They  use 
it  in  making  linings  for  their  nests,  in  making  the  sacks  in 
which  the  eggs  are  to  be  stored,  and  in  making  traps  of 
various  shapes  and  sorts  in  which  to  catch  their  prey. 
Frequently  the  spider  mends  its  web  by  tearing  out  the 
dirty  or  torn  piece  and,  at  the  same  time,  spinning  in  new 
threads. 

Webs  are  stretched  in  various  places.  The  garden 
spider  always  places  its  web  vertically.  The  house  spider 
spins  her  web  in  the  corner  of  the  attic  or  the  stable,  or 


NEAR   RELATIVES    OF   INSECTS.  243 

some  other  places  where  we  think  she  ought  not  to  be.  A 
favorite  habit  of  hers  is  to  spin  irregular  webs  in  the  angle 
from  ceiling  to  side  wall  overnight.  This  has  the  entirely 
innocent  purpose  of  trapping  flying  insects;  but  you 
object  and  rudely  sweep  them  down  next  morning. 
Another  spider  places  her  web  on  the  grass  horizontally; 
another  joins  twigs  of  trees  or  bushes  with  a  web  placed 
either  horizontally  or  vertically.  During  midsummer, 
in  the  early  morning,  these  webs  of  the  grass  spiders  may 
be  seen  glistening  with  dew. 

Argyroneta  aquatica  spins  a  silken  web  on  the  stems 
of  submerged  water  plants,  fills  it  with  air,  and  lives  in  it; 
the  opening  being  below,  the  air  cannot  escape.  This 
seems  to  solve  the  old  riddle — 

"  Under  water,  over  water, 
Yet  never  touching  water." 

The  way  in  which  she  transports  the  air  below  water  is  in- 
terestingly recorded  by  Kingsley.  The  spider  comes  to  the 
surface  of  the  water,  turns  around,  bringing  the  abdomen 
out  of  the  water,  and  spreading  the  spinnerets  apart  so  as 
to  let  the  air  in  between  them;  then  she  closes  the  hind 
legs  tightly  over  the  spinnerets,  and  goes  below  with  the 
drop  of  enclosed  air  glistening  white  against  the  water,  backs 
to  the  opening  of  her  nest,  and  spreading  the  spinnerets, 
lets  go  the  air  into  the  nest  opening. 

The  flying  spiders  spin  a  float  which,  beginning  as  a 
tiny  raft,  soon  becomes  powerful  enough  to  carry  them 
away  up  into  the  air,  if  the  breeze  is  stiff,  on  a  merry 
sail  in  the  late  summer  sunshine;  or  in  the  sunshiny 
autumn  days,  you  may  have  felt  the  delicate  ropes  of  this 
craft  draw  across  your  face,  while  the  tiny  aeronaut  above 
was  probably  wondering  on  what  reef  his  ship's  anchor  had 
caught. 


244  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

The  spinning  organs  are  numerous  glands  which  lie 
in  the  abdomen,  filling  the  larger  part  of  the  cavity;  and 
the  fluid  matter  in  them  leaves  the  spinning  glands  to  be 
joined  in  larger,  less  watery  groups  of  spinning  material, 
and  finally  leaves  the  body  by  the  spinnerets,  six  in 
number.  Out  of  each  of  these  spinnerets  flows  a  drop  of 
the  semi-fluid  material ;  and  by  some  motion  of  the  spider's 
body,  the  separate  spinneret  products  are  combined 
into  one  strong  thread  or  cable.  In  spinning  the  web,  the 
spider  runs  the  supporting  frame- work  first,  and  as  it 
spins  the  cross  threads,  if  it  is  a  round  web  weaver,  it  will 
glue  each  new  thread  every  time  it  crosses  the  frame- work. 
If  you  are  quiet  and  stand  where  your  shadow  does  not 
fall  on  the  place  where  the  spider  is  working,  you  may  see 
for  yourself  how  she  spins  her  web. 

As  to  the  development  of  spiders:  each  spider  spins 
a  tiny  silken  mat,  upon  which  she  lays  her  eggs ;  then  she 
doubles  up  the  corners  of  the  mat  and  glues  the  ends 
securely  about  the  clutch  of  eggs.  Other  spiders  spin  a 
large  urn-shaped  case  with  a  small  opening;  the  outside 
of  the  sack  is  formed  of  tough,  compact  silk,  while  the 
inside  is  lined  with  loose  threads.  The  inside  of  most 
spider  nests  are  similarly  made,  probably  to  keep  the 
eggs  from  sticking  together  when  they  are  first  laid,  as  they 
are  then  wet  and  more  or  less  sticky. 

The  rate  of  development  varies.  Some  eggs  laid  in 
autumn  develop  slowly  all  winter;  while  others  laid  in 
early  summer  will  hatch  in  a  few  weeks,  often  two.  The 
hatching  usually  occupies  a  day  or  two.  The  tiny  spiders 
are  white,  soft-bodied,  without  any  hairs  or  spines,  and 
with  only  small  claws  on  the  feet.  Maturity  is  reached 
by  frequent  moultings.  In  a  few  days  they  begin  to 
look  more  like  spiders;  the  hairs  begin  to  form,  and  the 


NEAR  RELATIVES   OF  INSECTS. 

body  becomes  darker  in  color.  In  the  case  of  spiders 
which  develop  slowly  all  winter,  perhaps  hatching 
prematurely,  when  the  natural  food  does  not  offer,  the 
young  spiders  are  liable  to  eat  each  other.  Indeed,  in  the 
summer  time,  if  the  brood  hatching  from  one  clutch  is 
very  large,  the  stronger  ones  in  the  sack  hatching  first 
eat  the  weaker;  thus  gradually  thinning  out  the  colony, 
and  bringing  about  the  survival  of  only  the  strongest 
spiders. 

Before  the  second  moult,  the  young  spiders  generally 
leave  the  cocoon  or  nest,  and  for  a  time  live  in  a  web  which 
they  spin  together.  This  second  moult  occurs  very  soon 
after  hatching  and  usually  is  not  preceded  by  any  eating 
on  the  part  of  the  spiders ;  this  early  abstinence  from  food 
is  not  an  anomalous  condition.  It  is  duplicated  in  the 
life  of  the  young  of  many  animals,  such  as  chickens,  ducks, 
and  birds  of  many  sorts,  and  even  of  some  of  the  mammals. 
Subsequent  moults  bring  the  young  spiders  to  adult  form, 
size,  and  ferocity;  and,  because  of  this  last  fact,  the  separa- 
tion of  the  brood  into  distinct  places  of  habitation  will 
have  taken  place  before  this  period  is  reached. 

Females  of  the  family  of  running  spiders  keep  their 
egg  sacks  with  them  attached  to  their  spinnerets  by  the 
threads  reaching  from  the  spinnerets  to  the  mouth  of  the 
egg  sack.  Another  spider  in  the  same  family  carries  her 
egg  sack  about  with  her  in  her  hunting  expeditions,  until 
the  eggs  begin  to  hatch ;  then  she  fastens  the  sack  to  some 
bush  or  other  stem  by  a  loose,  irregular  web  of  her  own 
weaving.  This  web  also  serves  the  other  valuable  purpose 
of  providing  the  young  spiders  with  a  chance  meal  of 
insects  now  and  then.  So  far  as  known,  this  is  the  only 
instance  among  the  spiders  of  care  for  the  young  beyond 
the  egg  stage. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

KEY  TO  FAMILIES  OF  SPIDERS.     ADAPTED  FROM 

EMERTON. 

Drassidae. — Tube  weavers;  spin  no  webs,  but  make 
nests  in  form  of  flattened  bag  or  tube;  seek  prey  on 
ground  among  leaves  and  grass.  Body  usually  two  or 
three  times  as  long  as  wide;  somewhat  flattened  on  back. 
Legs  about  equal  in  length,  two  pairs  forward  and  two 
pairs  backward,  velvety;  hairs  and  spines  short;  feet  with 
two  claws  with  a  brush  of  flat  hairs;  mandibles  together 
as  wide  as  head.  Eyes  eight,  about  equal  in  size,  in  two 
rows  of  about  equal  length  and  not  far  apart.  Colors 
dull  gray,  brown,  or  black;  few  markings  or  none. 
A  few  species  are  brightly  marked,  and  there  are  some 
slight  differences  in  the  different  species  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  eyes. 

Dysderidse. — Eyes  six.  Four  breathing  holes  in  the 
front  of  the  abdomen.  Appearance  otherwise  like 
Drassidae. 

Thomisidae. — Crab  spiders;  flat,  short-bodied,  much 
wider  in  the  abdomen.  Travel  side  wise,  look  like  crabs. 
First  and  second  legs  often  much  longer  than  third  and 
fourth;  all  extend  sidewise  from  the  body.  Feet  with 
two  claws  and  thick  brush.  Body  smooth  or  covered 
with  very  fine,  soft  hair ;  coarser  hairs  sometimes  scattered 
over  back  areas.  Eyes  small,  in  two  curved  rows,  upper 
row  the  longer.  Mandibles  small,  narrowed  at  the  end. 

Attidae. — Jumping  spiders;  live  in  open  places  among 

246 


KEY   TO   FAMILIES    OF    SPIDERS.  247 

low  plants,  occasionally  seen  running  across  sidewalks ; 
quick  in  movements.  Most  of  them  brightly  colored, 
colors  change  when  spider  is  wet.  Body  short  and 
stout;  cephalo-thorax  large,  wide  in  front.  Eyes  eight, 
in  three  rows,  middle  two  of  first  much  the  largest;  two 
eyes  of  second  row  very  small ;  two  eyes  of  third  row  far 
back  on  head.  Length  of  legs  varies  with  different 
species,  often  front  pair  longest;  feet  with  two  claws  and 
thick  brush;  walk  backward  or  sidewise.  Make  no  webs, 
but  a  tube  or  bag  to  hibernate  in. 

Lycosidse. — Running  Spiders;  our  commonest  spiders; 
live  near  ground;  do  not  hide.  Colors  black  and 
white  or  colors  of  ground,  stones,  or  leaves,  sometimes 
uniformly  arranged,  sometimes  in  patterns.  Fourth  pair 
of  legs  longest ;  spines  on  legs  long,  stand  out  in  running ; 
feet  with  three  claws,  under  claw  small  and  covered  by 
hairs.  Eyes  in  three  rows,  four  eyes  in  the  lowest  row, 
two  big  eyes  in  the  middle  row;  and  two  small  eyes  farther 
back  and  wider  apart  for  the  third  row.  Body  long  in 
most  species;  head  high;  abdomen  about  the  width  of 
the  cephalo-thorax,  and  as  thick  as  wide. 

Agalenidae. — Larger  ones  make  flat  webs  common  on 
grass,  horizontally,  and  in  corners  of  barns  and  cellars. 
Head  large  and  marked  off  from  thorax  by  shallow 
grooves,  contracted  behind  eyes.  Mandibles  large,  swol- 
len at  base  (female).  Eyes  like  Drassidae.  Upper  spin- 
nerets longest.  Feet  with  three  claws  and  a  brush. 
Males  have  longer  legs,  smaller  abdomen.  Palpi  large 
and  complicated. 

Therididae. — Loose  irregular  webs,  no  flat  sheet,  but  a 
loose  tent  in  which  the  spider  stands;  in  upper  room- 
corners,  on  fences,  between  rocks,  on  leaves  and  branches 
of  low  trees.  Body  small,  soft,  light-colored;  abdomen 


248  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

large  and  round.  Legs  slender,  no  spines.  Eyes  about 
the  same  size,  in  two  rows  close  together,  often  touching. 
Mandibles  weak,  without  teeth.  Maxillae  pointed  and 
turned  inward.  Most  of  them  live  in  webs,  hang  back 
downward. 

Linyphiadae. — Roof  weavers;  body  elongated.  Legs 
stout  with  many  spines.  Mandibles  large,  strong,  with 
teeth  around  claws;  maxillas  not  inclined  toward  labium. 
Live  in  shady  woods,  under  leaves,  in  caves  and  cellars; 
colors  plain  and  dull.  Web  usually  a  large  flat  sheet 
supported  by  threads,  and  under  this  the  spider  lives. 

Epeiridae. — Round  web  weavers;  hang  in  web  or 
nest,  back  or  head  downward.  Cephalo-thorax  short  in 
most  of  the  species,  low  and  wide  in  front.  Eyes  eight, 
side  pairs  close  together  and  farther  from  middle  eyes  than 
middle  eyes  are  from  each  other — all  located  near  front 
edge  of  head.  Mandibles  large;  maxillae  short  and  not 
pointed  nor  turned  inward.  Legs  long  and  stout  in  most 
species.  Abdomen,  in  some  species,  rounded  and  cu- 
riously humped  or  angled.  Colors  often  bright,  and 
arranged  on  abdomen  in  triangular  or  leaf  patterns. 
Some  species  show  deceptive  coloration  for  concealment 
among  the  plants  where  they  live. 

Cribellata. — Six  spinnerets  and  a  cribellum,  a  flat, 
wide  spinning  organ  in  front  of  the  spinnerets;  calamis- 
trum  on  hind  legs,  that  is,  a  row  of  hairs  to  draw  out  the 
band  of  silk  from  spinnerets  and  cribellum.  Feet  with 
three  claws. 


PART  III. 
BIRDS. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

GENERAL   DIRECTIONS  FOR  FIELD   WORK   ON 

BIRDS. 

The  best  general  equipment  for  classes  within  the 
scope  of  this  work  on  birds,  is  a  good  field  glass,  which 
ought  to  be  the  property  of  the  school,  a  camera  or  a 
kodak,  and  some  good  guide  to  the  identification  of  birds. 
If  Reed's  excellent  little  book,  ''Bird  Guide,"  is  the  one 
used,  each  member  of  the  class  ought  to  have  his  own 
copy.  If  Chapman's  "Color  Key  to  North  American 
Birds"  is  chosen,  there  might  be  fewer  books  needed.* 
But  so  far  as  experience  goes,  it  would  seem  that  the 
condition  where  each  member  of  the  class  has  his  own 
little  manual  secures  the  best  results. 

The  field  glass  is  indispensable  for  studying  birds 
in  the  open.  It  brings  the  bird  within  close  enough 
range  for  its  identification.  Birds  fly  so  rapidly  and  are 
so  easily  disturbed,  or  they  perch  so  far  away,  that  one 
cannot  get  near  enough  for  a  "good  look." 

A  camera  or  a  kodak,  it  can  be  a  Brownie  kodak  owned 

*  Information  concerning  the  two  books  mentioned  may  be  had  of 
Chas.  K.  Reed,  238  Main  Street,  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  This 
gentleman  also  furnishes  a  field  glass  for  bird  study. 

249 


250  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

by  the  school,  or  it  can  be  the  property  of  some  member  of 
the  class,  is  an  adjunct  of  the  first  order  in  studying  birds. 
The  memory  does  not  always  serve  one  as  to  how  a  given 
bird  looked,  or  where  it  was  found,  what  it  was  doing, 
what  kind  of  a  nest  it  built,  whether  it  was  found  social 
or  solitary,  and  whether  the  birds  of  the  pair  looked  alike. 
All  these  things  the  kodak  will  record  faithfully,  and  it 
will  furnish  them  on  demand  for  future  reference. 

Pages  260  and  261  afford  suggestions  for  the  different 
areas  which  may  be  studied.  The  locality  where  the  study 
is  being  undertaken,  and  the  environing  neighborhood  must 
also  furnish  many  other  suggestions.  In  large  cities,  some 
of  the  shy  passerine  birds  and  picarian  birds  will  occasion- 
ally nest  upon  the  roofs  of  tall  buildings.  About  factories, 
in  spite  of  the  noise  and  smoke  and  the  presence  of  human 
beings,  there  may  occasionally  be  found  members  of  the 
sparrow  tribe.  In  the  communities  less  cosmopolitan, 
the  opportunities  are  more  numerous  for  getting  acquainted 
with  more  sorts  of  birds  than  in  the  city.  But  in  the 
country  town  or  the  village,  one  finds  the  ideal  conditions, 
conditions  which  are  usually  well-nigh  perfection  for  the 
study  of  the  feathered  tribe.  Especially  is  this  true  if  the 
outskirts  of  the  village  merge  into  the  woodland,  or  lose 
themselves  in  some  river  or  marsh  or  stream  with  an  under- 
growth of  bushes  and  tree  thickets.  Both  city  and 
country  conditions  may  be  made  to  yield  their  secrets 
of  bird  life,  if  one  has  eye  and  ear  alert  to  perceive.  When 
you  hear  a  bird-call,  then  is  your  time  to  seek  a  glimpse 
of  the  bird.  When  about  one's  regular  duties,  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  from  some  unexpected  source 
there  will  come  just  the  item  of  information  which  you 
may  have  desired  for  days.  In  this,  as  in  all  things  else, 
what  one  heartily  desires,  that  will  one  attain  unto. 


GENERAL   DIRECTIONS    FOR   FIELD    WORK    ON   BIRDS.     251 

The  object  in  bird  study,  as  it  was  in  the  study  of 
many  of  the  insects,  is  the  knowledge  of  the  birds,  not 
the  killing  and  the  mounting,  nor  yet  the  killing  and  the 
eating — and  surely  not  the  killing  for  a  sharpshooter's 
medal,  or  some  aim  more  idle  still.  A  record  of  the 
facts  gleaned  from  a  study  of  birds,  if  faithfully  and  neatly 
kept,  may  turn  out  to  be  valuable  at  some  future  time 
in  ways  which  may  be  entirely  unforeseen  at  the  begin- 
ning. This  is  the  way  in  which  all  the  men  who  have 
since  become  useful  in  the  great  world  of  science  have 
begun  their  life  work.  And  they  are  proofs  that  it  always 
pays  to  do  a  thing  faithfully  and  well. 

As  suggested  in  the  pages  mentioned,  there  are  certain 
times  of  the  year  during  which  bird  study  is  especially 
interesting  and  profitable,  and  these  are  the  nesting  season 
and  the  season  of  migration.  There  are  many  new  facts 
yet  to  be  discovered  about  these  two  phases  of  the  bird's 
existence ;  besides  the  many  problems  concerning  individ- 
ual birds  and  their  neighbors,  and  the  bird's  ways  of 
meeting  the  growing  needs  of  its  environment. 

If  the  class  is  near  enough  to  some  museum  of  natural 
history,  it  will  be  a  rare  privilege  to  study  the  birds  at 
close  range,  where  they  will  all  sit  still  long  enough  to  be 
studied  completely.  Other  ways  of  doing  will  suggest 
themselves  to  the  earnest  teacher  who  is  alive  to  the 
duties  and  privileges  of  the  situation.  Special  aptitude 
for  the  subject  is  not  an  indispensable  requisite,  although 
it  makes  things  easier,  but  there  are  needed  such  qualities 
as  these:  a  clear  aim;  an  enthusiasm  which  is  warranted 
not  to  flag;  and  a  genius  for  patience.  These  given,  the 
reward  is  sure. 


CHAPTER  XXL 
INTRODUCTION  TO  BIRDS. 

Birds  belong  to  the  class  Aves.  This  word  is  the 
plural  of  the  Latin  noun,  avis,  meaning  a  bird.  Birds 
constitute  a  much  smaller  class  of  animals  than  do  the 
insects.  The  Arthropoda,  the  branch  of  the  animal 
kingdom  to  which  the  insects  belong,  is  the  most  numerous 
of  all  the  groups,  comprising  more  known  sorts  or  species 
of  animals  than  do  all  the  other  branches  put  together. 
Williston  places  the  number  of  flies  alone,  known  at  the 
present  time  at  eighty  thousand.  And  every  year 
witnesses  discoveries  of  Arthropoda  hitherto  unknown, 
as  the  study  of  familiar  regions  becomes  more  intensive, 
or  as  new  earth  and  ocean  regions  are  explored  for  the 
first  time.  Just  now,  in  these  days,  are  appearing  accounts 
of  the  explorations  of  several  traveler  naturalists  in 
South  American,  West  Indian,  and  East  Indian  lands, 
men  who  are  doing  much  as  did  men  in  the  days  of 
Linnaeus,  when  they  traveled  into  foreign  lands  for  the 
sake  of  seeing  the  wonderful  sights  of.  Nature  in  the  way 
of  rock,  plant,  or  strange  animal.  But  in  these  latter 
days,  our  travelers  have  to  guide  them  all  the  great  body 
of  truth  which  it  has  been  man's  privilege,  under  God,  to 
discover,  from  the  days  of  Linnaeus  down  to  the  present 
time. 

Life  is  the  most  wonderful  of  all  the  facts  of  creation, 
and  only  life  can  understand  life  and  discover  its  meaning. 
Its  full  meaning  is  always  a  little  beyond  the  compre- 

252 


INTRODUCTION   TO   BIRDS.  253 

hension,  and  yet  there  is  always  something  in  the  nature 
of  the  highest  of  created  beings,  man,  that  urges  him 
ever  forward  toward  a  fuller  understanding  of  life,  its 
powers  and  individuality  of  action,  as  manifested  in 
plant  or  worm,  insect,  bird,  or  man. 

At  the  head  of  the  animal  half  of  the  life  kingdom  is 
man,  and  below  him,  other  numerous,  and  some  of  them 
scarcely  less  wonderful  mammals,  as  the  horse,  the  dog, 
the  elephant,  and  the  fox. 

As  to  the  place  of  birds  in  the  animal  kingdom, 
they  stand  just  below  mammals  and  just  above  reptiles; 
and  more  closely  allied  to  reptiles  than  they  are  to 
mammals  in  points  of  structure,  but  more  closely  approach- 
ing man  in  sense  development.  Taken  as  a  class,  the  Aves 
are  more  clearly  denned  than  any  other  group  of  the 
higher  animals.  The  birds  most  unlike  each  other  are 
still  more  closely  allied  than  are  the  varying  life  forms 
among  the  fishes,  the  reptiles,  or  the  mammals. 

There  is  good  evidence  that  birds  had  reptilian 
relatives  in  the  good  old  Jurassic  days,  and  to  one  of  them 
was  given  the  not  unmusical  name  of  Archaeopteryx,  a 
name  which  means  ancient  bird.  Two  specimens  of  this 
bird  have  been  found,  and  both  of  them  in  the  slates  of 
Solenhofen  in  Bavaria.  One  of  them  is  now  preserved 
in  the  British  museum,  and  the  other  in  the  museum  of 
Berlin.  It  had  the  feet,  the  limb  bones,  and  the  beak 
of  a  bird;  but  the  beak  was  set  with  strong  teeth.  The 
tail  was  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  backbone  put  together ; 
and  the  vertebral  bones  extended  on  down  into  the  tail, 
and  from  these  the  feathers  came  off  in  pairs,  one  feather 
on  each  side.  (Fig.  98.) 

The  Archaeopteryx  was  about  the  size  of  a  crow,  and 
probably  climbed  trees  by  means  of  the  hook  at  the 


254 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


apex  of  the  first  wing  bone.  In  support  of  the  theory  of 
life  continuity  from  simple  to  complex,  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  a  living  South  American  bird,  the  hoatzin,  while 
young,  has  similar  hooks  at  the  apex  of  its  first  wing  bone, 
and  it  climbs  trees  by  means  of  feet,  bill,  and  these  claws. 
Birds  have  also  been  discovered  in  the  Cretaceous 
strata  of  Kansas.  In  1870,  Professor  Marsh,  of  Harvard, 
dug  up  a  specimen  of  a  bird  in  western  Kansas,  near  the 


FIG.  98. — Arch&opteryx  lithographica,  an  early  Reptilian  Bird.     (Galloway,  from 

Claus.) 

Smoky  Hill  river.  It  was  named  the  Hesperornis,  and 
was  evidently  a  water  bird,  as  it  had  no  wings;  but  its 
legs,  feet,  and  tail  were  remarkably  adapted  for  swimming 
and  diving.  Its  tail  consisted  of  twelve  vertebrae,  the 
hind  ones  flattened,  much  as  in  a  beaver's  tail.  Several 
other  birds  have  been  found  in  western  Kansas  and  the 
bones  of  about  fifty  different  specimens  of  these  birds 
are  in  possession  of  Yale  University. 

All  the  western  Cretaceous  birds  have  been  found 
in  the  soil  of  western  Kansas,  except  where  the  same 
formation  in  Texas  furnished  a  few;  while  the  eastern 
Cretaceous  birds  come  from  the  Green-sand  of  New 


INTRODUCTION    TO    BIRDS.  255 

Jersey;  and  these  latter  represent  a  later  period  in  the 
earth's  history.  The  Hesperornis  measured  about  six  feet 
from  bill  tip  to  toe  end,  and  must  have  stood,  according  to 
Marsh's  restoration,  about  three  feet  high.  It  seems  to 
have  been  a  huge  diving  bird  with  the  general  build  of  a 
loon.  The  Ichthyornis,  another  find  in  the  same  for- 
mation, was  a  much  smaller  bird  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon,  and  had  more  of  the  characteristics  of  the  birds 
of  nowadays.  The  earliest  known  bird  of  the  passerine 
type  belonging  to  the  United  States,  was  found  in  the 
Florissant  Beds  of  Colorado,  those  rock  beds  that  have 
yielded  so  many  specimens  of  fossil  insects  also.  This 
bird  shows  relationships  with  the  immense  modern  family 
of  the  Fringillidae  or  finches,  sparrows  as  they  are  more 
commonly  called.  To-day,  birds  are  more  widely  dis- 
tributed than  are  any  other  animals. 

The  relationships  of  birds  to  man  present  three 
phases  of  study:  the  scientific,  the  economic,  and  the 
aesthetic.  The  embryologist,  the  systematic  classifier 
of  animals,  the  comparative  physiologist,  and  the  psychol- 
ogist, all  find  abundant  material  for  study  among  the 
birds.  Among  the  students  of  birds  may  be  mentioned 
Audubon,  Coues,  Ridgway,  Jordan,  Goss,  Chapman, 
and  a  host  of  lesser  students  of  birds.  The  labors  of 
these  eminent  men  are  of  use  to  the  amateur  in  enabling 
him  to  become  sufficiently  acquainted  with  birds  in  their 
resemblances  and  differences,  to  know  them  in  their  groups 
and  families,  to  understand  much  of  their  anatomy  and 
physiology,  their  peculiarities  of  inter-dependence  and 
relationship  among  themselves,  and  the  similarities  of 
their  sense  powers,  activities,  and  behavior  to  man. 

The  economic  value  of  birds  to  man  rests  upon  the 
service  they  render  to  him  in  preventing  the  increase  of 


256  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

injurious  insects  and  burrowing  rodents,  and  in  eating 
the  seeds  of  harmful  plants,  or  devouring  refuse  which,  if 
left,  would  be  a  menace  to  the  health  of  the  community. 
Many  of  the  birds  which  are  known  to  be  seed-eaters  are 
not,  for  this  reason,  to  be  set  down  as  harmful  birds. 
The  seeds  eaten  may  be  seeds  of  troublesome  or  harmful 
plants.  A  great  many  of  the  birds  that  stay  north  during 
the  winter,  or  come  south  at  that  time,  devour  large 
quantities  of  weed  seeds — a  fact  not  to  be  disregarded 
in  the  economy  of  our  seed-planting,  plowing,  and 
harvesting. 

Among  our  specially  useful  birds  are  the  woodpeckers, 
both  downy  and  hairy,  yellow-billed  and  black-billed 
cuckoos,  bluebirds,  robins,  brown  thrashers,  catbirds, 
grosbeaks,  red-winged  blackbirds,  sparrow  hawks,  quails, 
prairie  chickens,  marsh  hawks,  red-tailed  hawks,  barn 
owls,  swifts  and  swallows,  the  large  family  of  sparrows, 
the  warblers,  and  the  vireos.  Others  might  be  mentioned 
as  valuable  to  man,  but  these  whose  names  are  here  given 
do  such  great  service  as  to  deserve  special  mention.  The 
service  rendered  is  simply  obeying  the  instincts  of  food- 
getting  and  of  caring  for  their  young;  but  by  a  wise  pro- 
vision of  the  Creator,  the  two  necessities  named  lie  heav- 
iest upon  these  birds  during  our  season  of  crop-growing 
and  harvesting.  Moreover,  in  order  to  do  themselves 
this  good  and  us  this  service,  most  of  these  birds  just 
named  journey  on  their  tiny  wings  a  thousand  miles- 
some  of  them  much  more,  some  less — going  far  south  when 
our  summer  is  over,  and  coming  back  when  our  spring 
returns.  And  yet  many  people  see  no  more  in  this  than 
a  casual  happening,  something  to  be  taken  for  granted, 
instead  of  a  great  lesson  of  the  Creator,  taught  anew  every 
spring  in  the  flutter  of  hundreds  of  wings  and  the  melody 


INTRODUCTION    TO    BIRDS.  257 

of  bird  songs,  as  our  summer  friends  come  flocking  back  to 
the  meadows,  fields,  gardens,  and  orchards  that  need  them 
so  badly. 

The  insectivorous  birds,  in  their  search  for  daily  food, 
explore  different  regions.  The  swifts  and  the  swallows 
have  the  air  for  their  hunting  grounds,  the  swallows  often 
hunting  flies  and  gnats  far  into  the  twilight.  Night- 
hawks  and  whip-poor-wills  take  up  the  hunt  after  night- 
fall. The  flycatchers,  in  their  dun-colored  coats,  will 
sit  in  the  shadows  of  tree  or  bush,  ready  to  dart  out  at  a 
passing  insect,  or  they  have  been  known  to  locate  a  gnat 
swarm  and  sit  with  open  mouth  in  the  path  of  the  flying 
swarm,  filling  their  crops  to  overflowing.  Warblers 
explore  the  circumference  of  herb,  shrub,  or  tree,  picking 
off  leaf -eating  insects.  The  vireos  do  police  duty  on  the 
underside  of  leaves  and  in  out-of-the-way  corners.  The 
woodpeckers  and  the  brown  creepers  take  up  the  chase  on 
the  tree  trunks  and  the  larger  limbs,  exploring  every 
inch  for  some  flat-headed  or  round-headed  borer,  for  ants, 
or  insect  eggs.  A  woodpecker  can  get  himself  a  fairly 
good  meal  out  of  a  telegraph  pole,  but  he  will  do  better 
service  on  an  elm  tree.  The  orioles,  the  cuckoos,  and  the 
blue  jays  delight  to  hunt  for  caterpillars,  hairy  and  smooth, 
in  and  out  among  the  foliage  and  fruit,  where  worms  may 
be  found  eating  leaves  or  curled  up  comfortably  in  some 
blossom.  Such  sparrows  as  are  winter  residents  live  off 
weed  seeds  principally,  while  the  summer  residents  of  the 
tribe  are  for  the  most  part  ground  feeders,  and  find  a  rich 
harvest  in  insects  and  seeds  near  the  ground.  Aquatic 
birds  help  the  dragon  flies  eat  the  mosquito  larvae;  or 
occasionally  there  is  found  a  bird  shrewd  enough  and 
quick  enough  to  turn  the  tables  and  eat  the  dragon  flies. 
Along  our  sea-coasts,  aquatic  birds  do  great  service  as 

.17 


258  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

scavengers.  This  is  a  service  little  appreciated.  Along 
bay,  lake,  pond,  river,  or  stream,  flies,  moths,  beetles,  and 
other  insects  frequently  fall  into  the  water  and  are  drowned, 
and  their  bodies  lodge  in  the  shallows  or  are  swept  down 
stream.  One  hardly  suspects  this  fact  till  on  some  lazy 
summer  afternoon,  he  lies  quiet  and  motionless  in  the 
shadows  and  sees  over  and  over  again  about  him  the 
enactment  of  this  tiny  tragedy,  of  insect  fall  and  quick 
pursuit  by  the  bird. 

Hawks  and  owls  as  a  group,  with  the  few  exceptions 
of  Cooper's  Hawk,  the  Sharp-shinned,  and  the  Goshawk, 
are  of  large  benefit  to  farmers  in  getting  rid  of  the  small 
rodents  so  destructive  to  growing  crops.  No  one  knows 
this  so  well  as  the  cattlemen  on  the  western  plains,  who 
regard  the  hawks  as  valuable  allies.  It  is  difficult  to 
overthrow  an  age-old  belief,  and  to  convince  people 
without  repeated  and  strongly  impressed  proof ;  but  every 
student  of  birds,  and  everyone  interested  in  crops  and 
their  dependence  upon  different  birds  in  different  parts 
of  the  world,  ought  to  do  his  utmost  to  correct  the  prej- 
udice against  the  family  of  hawks.  The  reprobates  of 
the  tribe  have  just  been  mentioned ;  but  there  are  plenty  of 
beneficial  hawks  whose  service  should  be  a  matter  of 
gratitude,  on  the  part  of  farmers  especially. 

Analysis  of  numerous  stomachs  of  hawks,  the  most 
conclusive  way  of  determining  a  bird's  habitual  diet, 
reveals  the  facts  that  squash  bugs,  grasshoppers,  and  large 
caterpillars  are  freely  eaten,  while  the  marsh  hawk  is  a 
valuable  destroyer  of  field  mice  and  ground  squirrels. 
The  sparrow  hawk  is  a  valuable  ally  in  getting  rid  of 
grasshoppers;  the  adult  red-tails  eat  largely  insects  and 
mice;  and  the  young  of  the  hawk  tribes  are  more  exclu- 
sively insectivorous  than  are  the  adults. 


INTRODUCTION   TO   BIRDS.  259 

The  terrestrial  scavengers  are  the  vultures,  the 
ravens,  and  the  buzzards ;  while  along  our  shores  are  the 
scavenger  cormorants,  herons,  and  gulls,  though  gulls 
usually  work  farther  out  to  sea  than  do  the  other  birds 
mentioned. 

Birds  are  the  best  friends  the  farmer  has,  not  except- 
ing our  Secretaries  of  Agriculture,  state  and  national. 
Even  the  corn-eating  crow  that  we  hear  so  much  about 
in  the  spring  has  been  eating  mice  and  grubs  and  scraps 
through  the  winter;  while  in  the  grasshopper  season  he 
probably  eats  more  grasshoppers  than  corn  grains,  day 
for  day;  and  grasshoppers  increase  much  faster  than  crows. 
It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  crows  do  some  damage  to 
sprouting  grain ;  but  there  is  hardly  any  animal  that  is  at 
all  times  beneficial.  How  about  ourselves,  for  instance? 

In  a  recent  government  report,  a  yellow-billed  cuckoo, 
killed  at  six  in  the  morning,  had  in  its  crop  the  partially- 
digested  remains  of  forty-three  tent  caterpillars!  How 
many  more  it  would  have  eaten  before  nightfall  is-  a 
question.  Birds  digest  their  food  very  rapidly,  so  that 
it  is  difficult  to  make  estimates  covering  much  time,  and 
the  cuckoo  belongs  well  up  in  the  scale  of  bird  life,  where 
all  the  vital  processes  are  rapid. 

Besides  furnishing  "bread  and  butter"  for  scores,  of 
birds,  insects  are  eaten  by  many  of  the  other  vertebrates. 
Lizards,  toads,  frogs,  and  prairie  squirrels  catch  insects 
as  long  as  the  insects  are  with  us;  that  is,  until  the  ap- 
proach of  winter  leads  to  the  disappearance  of  their 
natural  food,  when  the  conditions  lead  up  to  the  hiber- 
nation of  many  of  these  animals.  The  mole,  which  has  a 
reputation  for  being  such  a  pest,  is  only  trying  to  get 
the  white  grubs  and  the  caterpillars  that  have  dug  under 
the  ground  surface  to  winter  over.  Of  course,  as  the 


260  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

mole  tunnels  around  among  the  grass  roots  in  search 
of  his  breakfast,  he  does  not  take  the  trouble  to  go  back 
and  cover  up  the  grass  patch  where  he  found  a  fat  grub. 
The  juicy  meal  only  fills  him  with  a  craving  for  more,  and 
on  he  goes.  Field  mice  and  skunks  eat  grasshoppers. 
Fresh-water  fishes  are  insectivorous  to  nearly  fifty  per 
cent  of  their  diet.  Hence,  and  this  is  the  valuable  point, 
these  insectivorous  animals  cannot  be  destroyed  by  an 
agency  outside  their  own  domain  without  disturbing  the 
nice  balance  of  nature.  Only  in  regions  destitute  of  man's 
presence  is  this  balance  most  nearly  preserved.  Man 
is  the  largest  disturbing  force. 

The  study  of  birds  should  not  be  restricted  to  any 
one  season,  nor  to  one  locality;  but  should  cover  a  year 
at  the  very  shortest  for  a  locality  and  its  surrounding 
country.  For  instance,  if  you  are  in  the  country  for  your 
special  field,  your  study  should  cover  also  the  nearby 
town.  The  different  zones  of  life  ought  to  be  investigated ; 
the  ground  birds,  the  tree-top  birds,  the  day  and  the 
night  fliers,  the  woodland  birds  and  the  birds  of  the  open, 
the  morning  and  the  evening  birds,  the  shy  birds  and  the 
birds  that  like  the  society  of  their  human  neighbors. 

Their  food  habits  should  also  be  a  matter  of  study. 
Yo.u  can  be  reasonably  sure  that  when  a  bird  is  astir  he 
is  doing  one  of  three  things :  hunting  for  food,  singing,  or 
looking  after  the  home,  either  the  prospective  home,  or 
the  home  in  possession.  In  addition,  birds  have  individ- 
ual traits;  as  pugilism,  for  the  pure  pleasure  of  downing 
an  opponent;  poaching,  running  another  bird  off  his 
feeding-grounds  because  he  is  bigger  and  can  do  it; 
blustering  braggadocio,  which,  by  the  way,  is  often  able 
to  gain  its  ends;  and  sly  cunning,  which  quietly  gets 
ahead  of  the  other  fellow  and  leaves  him  wondering 


INTRODUCTION   TO   BIRDS.  261 

what  has  happened.  These  are  a  few  more  of  the  ways  in 
which  birds  bear  out  the  biologist's  assumption  that  they 
are  closely  related  to  man.  White-rumped  shrikes,  blue 
jays,  house  wrens,  and  English  sparrows  will  reveal  these 
traits;  and  if  you  will  study  the  birds  in  your  own  neigh- 
borhood, you  may  be  able  to  discover  additional  traits. 

Be  continually  on  the  alert.  If  you  hear  a  bird  call, 
catch  a  glimpse  of  the  bird ;  it  may  be  that  you  will  have 
to  run;  or,  if  it  is  an  insectivorous  bird  or  a  seed-eater, 
you  may  have  to  steal  around  the  base  of  the  tree  several 
times,  tracing  the  bird's  fleeting  shadow  as  it  creeps  in  and 
out  among  the  leafy  twigs.  It  is  making  as  little  noise 
as  possible,  so  that  it  may  not  frighten  the  worm  out  of 
sight,  and  you  must  do  the  same  with  respect  to  the 
bird. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  BIRDS. 

As  to  the  physical  features  of  a  typical  bird,  we  may 
consider  the  uses  of  the  bill,  the  feet,  the  tail,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  coloration  of  birds.  We  are  to  understand 
that  the  biologist  does  not  think  that  things  just  happen, 
and  have  no  meaning  nor  use  in  the  great  scheme  of  life. 
No  life  trait  appears  without  the  preceding  stimulus  to 
that  form  of  activity;  hence  under  the  operation  of  this 
law  all  those  features  characteristic  of  an  individual  are 
seen  to  be  fraught  with  meaning  to  the  individual  in  the 
ease  or  success  with  which  he  "gets  along  in  the  world." 


FIG.  99. — Conirostral  bill  of  a  canary.        FIG.  100. — Falcate  bill  of  cross-bill. 

The  Bill. 

The  chief  office  of  the  bill  is  to  take  the  place  of  the 
hand,  which  the  bird  lacks.  It  really  belongs  to  a  biped 
which  is  without  arms  or  hands,  and  so  must  make  the 
bill  do  much  of  the  work  of  both  these  members.  It  is 
the  organ  of  prehension,  of  defense,  and  is  of  use  in  making 

262 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES    OF   BIRDS. 


263 


the  toilet.  In  the  nesting  season,  it  is  always  more 
brightly  colored  than  at  any  other  season  of  the  year; 
and  some  birds  have  it  adorned  in  some  way,  with  an 
outgrowth  of  feathers,  perhaps,  near  it  and  accentuating 
its  beauty  at  the  nuptial  season. 


FIG.  101. — Fissirostral  bill  of  a 
swallow. 


FIG.  102. — Fissirostral  bill  of 
chimney-swift. 


The  shape  of  the  bill  is  indicative  of  the  food  habits 
of  the  tribe  of  birds.  The  long,  thin,  pointed  bill  indi- 
cates the  insect  and  worm 
eater;  the  short,  stout  con- 
ical bill  belongs  to  the  seed 
eaters;  the  stout,  hooked  bill 
indicates  the  flesh  eater, 
which  tears  its  victim,  fish, 
mouse,  rabbit,  or  decaying 
carcass;  the  American  cross- 
bill cuts  out  the  pine  seeds 
from  the  cones,  more  effect- 
ively than  it  could  be  done  with  a  pair  of  scissors. 


FIG.   103. — Hooked  and  cered  bill 
of  a  hawk. 


A  few  birds,  as  the  owls,  snap  the  mandibles  together 
if  they  are  frightened  or  angry.  All  birds  use  the  bill 
as  a  toilet  accessory,  while  performing  the  curious  duty 


264  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

known  as  preening  their  feathers  after  a  water-bath. 
This  they  do  by  pressing  out  a  drop  of  oil  from  the  oil 
gland  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  and  rubbing  it  smoothly 
over  the  feathers  while  drawing  the  feathers  through  the 
bill.  Aquatic  birds,  such  as  the  domestic  and  wild  ducks, 
make  special  use  of  the  advantages  derived  from  this 
process;  as  the  oil  renders  the  feathers  less  readily  wet 
by  water.  Grebes,  which  can  remain  long  under  water 
in  the  act  of  diving  and  swimming,  come  out  dry  and 
glistening,  ready  for  another  plunge,  because  of  their  oily 
plumage. 


FIG.  104  — Tenuirostral  bill  of  a  nuthatch. 

Parrots  use  the  bill  in  climbing.  Some  birds  use  the 
bill  as  a  weapon.  But  as  an  organ  for  securing  food,  the 
bill  has  shapes  as  various  as  the  food  habits  of  the  genera 
of  birds.  It  may  have  the  form  of  a  lever  in  one  tribe  of 
birds,  a  pair  of  forceps,  a  hammer,  a  sieve,  an  awl,  a  hook, 
or  a  knife  in  others. 

The  Feet. 

Aquatic  birds  have  lobed  or  webbed  feet;  or  if  the 
bird  lives  in  swampy  places  or  wet  grass  land,  the  toes 
are  long  and  strong.  In  the  Mexican  and  South  American 
jacanas,  the  toes  are  enormously  lengthened,  a  provision 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES    OF    BIRDS. 


265 


which  makes  it  possible  for  the  bird  to  walk  over  the  water 
surfaces  in  its  native  haunts  by  stepping  on  the  broad 
leaves  of  the  water  plants.  Our  own  shore  and  swamp 


'Second Joint " 


Tibia 

-Legproper 
"Drumstick" 


Knee 


Heel 


Foot,  or  me tatans 
"Tarsus  " 


FIG.  105.— Hind  limb,  or  leg  and  foot,  of  a  bird.     (After  Coues.) 


266  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

inhabiting  birds  have  these  long  toes  also.  The  short- 
legged,  slim-bodied  rails  have  toes  all  out  of  proportion  to 
the  length  of  leg  and  body ;  but  their  efficiency  is  such  that 
the  bird  easily  finds  its  food  or  eludes  its  enemy  in  its 
marsh  home. 

Parrots  use  their  feet  as  a  hand,  holding  the  food  in 
them  while  tearing  it  in  pieces  for  devouring.  Hawks  often 
carry  nesting  material  in  their  claws;  and  birds  of  prey 
as  a  class  hold  their  prey  in  the  talons  while  tearing  it 
into  morsels.  Ostriches  have  especially  strong  feet, 
besides  being  able  to  kick.  The  grouse  have  naked  feet 
in  the  summer ;  but  in  winter,  the  feet  are  thickly  feathered 
to  the  toes. 

In  the  matter  of  getting  about  on  the  ground  and  in 
trees,  birds  use  their  feet  variously.  For  instance: 
do  you  know  whether  a  blackbird,  when  it  is  on  the  ground, 
puts  one  foot  before  the  other,  as  we  do  in  walking;  or 
does  it  hop,  using  both  feet  alike?  How  does  the  black- 
bird get  about  among  the  tree  leaves?  Do  robins,  blue- 
birds, domestic  pigeons  and  chickens,  quails,  hawks, 
and  eagles,  walk  or  hop?  How  do  the  woodpecker  and 
the  brown  creeper  use  their  feet  when  going  about  over 
the  tree  trunk?  The  flickers  are  often  seen  on  the  ground 
looking  for  ants;  how  do  they  use  their  feet  at  this  time? 
Does  the  domestic  hen  stand  on  one  foot  while  she  scratches 
with  the  other?  Does  the  parrot  use  both  feet  together, 
or  alternately?  If  you  are  fortunate  enough  to  discover 
a  bird  at  work  building  its  nest,  try  to  discover  whether 
it  uses  both  bill  and  feet,  or  only  one  of  these  members, 
and  which  one? 

How  do  domestic  ducks  use  their  feet  in  swimming, 
alternately  or  simultaneously?  Do  they  dive?  If  so, 
for  what  purpose  ?  Do  they  eat  afloat  or  ashore  ? 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES    OF   BIRDS.  267 

The  Tail. 

The  shape  of  the  tail  is  in  accord  with  the  bird's 
habits  of  flight  and  food-getting.  Its  main  office  is  to 
act  as  a  rudder  in  flying,  and  as  a  balancer  in  alighting 
from  flight.  The  inter-action  of  the  muscles  of  the 
tarsus  and  the  tibia  with  those  of  the  toes  is  such  that  the 
perchers  among  the  birds  are  safe  on  the  trees,  even  when 
sound  asleep.  The  natural  bend  of  the  bird's  foot  comes 
between  the  heel  and  the  toes.  Now,  with  some  of  the 
muscles  attached  to  both  tarsi  and  toes,  and  playing 
around  the  bend  of  the  foot,  the  toes  .are  firmly  locked 
around  the  twig  on  which  the  bird  may  be  sitting;  and 
the  bird  must  make  a  real  effort  to  let  go  rather  than  to 
hold  on.  This  coordination  of  muscular  effort  is  perfected 
only  in  the  fully- developed  bird;  hence  the  young  bird, 
or  the  bird  with  its  tail  only  partially  grown,  or  the  old 
bird  deprived  of  its  tail,  are  both  awkward  in  flight  and 
unsteady  in  alighting. 

Most  birds  walk  on  their  toes  with  the  heels  con- 
siderably elevated  above  the  surface  over  which  they  are 
walking.  If  you  would  see  the  force  of  this,  try  walking 
on  your  toes  with  your  heels  elevated.  The  birds  which 
do  walk  on  their  heels,  the  cormorants  and  the  grebes, 
are  exceedingly  awkward  and  unskillful  on  the  land. 

Long-tailed  birds  fly  with  greatest  ease,  and  can 
even  turn  sharp  corners  with  marvelous  success.  A 
robin,  digging  for  a  rapidly  descending  angleworm,  uses 
his  tail  as  a  sort  of  fulcrum  for  the  necessary  leverage  in 
raising  the  unlucky  worm.  All  the  tree-creeping  birds 
use  the  tail  as  a  prop  or  brace.  The  motmot  gesticulates 
with  its  tail,  as  do  also  the  angry  wren,  the  robin  when  he 
has  his  fighting  blood  up,  the  catbird  when  you  go  near 
his  nest,  or  the  amatory  blackbird  when  he  is  doing  his 


268  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

best  to  appear  well  before  some  maiden  blackbird.  In 
some  species  of  birds,  the  tail  is  more  expressive  of  the 
emotions  of  the  bird  than  is  any  other  organ  of  the  bird. 
The  stiff  feathers  of  the  tail  are  called  rectrices. 

In  birds,  as  in  all  classes  of  animals,  there  are  facts 
expressing  gradations  of  development.  We  speak  of  the 
birds  of  highest  nervous  development  as  the  highest 
family  of  birds.  Nor  is  this  fact  without  its  accompanying 
facts  of  classification.  These  are  also  the  birds  in  which 
we  find  the  altruistic  instincts  best  developed,  in  which  we 
find  fatherhood  no  longer  deprived  of  its  share  in  the 
interests  of  the  offspring.  Again,  in  the  highest  class  of 
birds,  we  touch  most  closely  the  life  of  the  human  family, 
where,  oftentimes,  the  bird  is  willing,  if  we  will  let  it, 
to  work  in  happy  partnership  with  man,  both  reaping 
legitimate  gain  from  the  same  region.  In  this  class  of 
birds,  we  find  some  that  are  able  to  pit  their  shrewdness 
against  the  shrewdness  of  man,  and  in  eight  times  out  of 
ten  come  out  ahead;  for  example,  the  English  sparrow. 

The  Wing. 

The  wing  is  the  organ  of  flight  par  excellence.  It 
has  furnished  to  the  human  race  the  inspiration  to  "go 
and  do  likewise"  from  the  days  of  Darius  Green  to  the 
Wrights  and  the  host  of  other  present-day  aviators. 
The  albatross  and  the  gulls  are  almost  tireless  on  the  wing. 
It  is  true  for  the  bird  in  general  that  it  seems  to  be  in  more 
stable  equilibrium  when  off  its  feet,  either  in  the  air  or  the 
water,  than  while  it  is  perching  or  walking,  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  base  within  which  the  center  of 
equilibrium  then  lies  is  so  broad,  the  wings  being  set 
quite  a  good  deal  forward  of  the  feet.  The  quadrupeds 
below  birds  go  on  all  fours,  with  the  head  iittle  raised  above 


PHYSICAL    FEATURES    OF    BIRDS.  269 

the  horizontal  body  level.  In  the  bird,  we  have  an 
upright  quadruped,  or  a  biped  with  the  front  limbs  used 
as  wings,  and  the  head  considerably  above  the  rest  of  the 
parts  of  the  body.  This  narrows  the  base  within  which 
the  center  of  equilibrium  falls  while  the  bird  stands 
upright;  but  when  the  bird  spreads  its  wings  it  bends 
forward,  and  thus  widens  its  base  and  places  itself  in 
more  stable  equilibrium.  Yet,  skill  in  flight  has  its 
degrees  of  excellence  of  development  in  the  different 
sorts  of  birds.  The  birds  just  mentioned  are  the  most 
notable  fliers  among  the  aquatic  birds.  Among  the  land 
birds  of  North  America,  the  buzzards  and  certain  of  the 
hawks  come  the  nearest  to  being  tireless  on  the  wing.  The 
most  familiar  feature  of  the  landscape,  in  some  parts  of 
the  continent,  is  the  vulture,  or  buzzard,  as  he  and  his 
comrades  soar  above  the  land  expanse  beneath,  no  part  of 
it  hidden  from  their  observing  eyes,  searching  for  a  carcass, 
soaring  till  they  find  it,  apparently  alighting  only  when 
feeding.  The  hen  hawk,  the  familiar  red  tail,  was 
watched  by  one  observer  from  seven  in  the  morning  till 
four  in  the  afternoon,  during  which  time  it  kept  aloft  in 
the  air. 

The  skeleton  of  the  bird's  wing  has  much  the  same 
construction  as  our  arm;  insomuch  so  that  we  call  the 
large  bone  articulating  with  the  shoulder  the  humerus; 
the  two  smaller  bones  below  it  and  articulating  partly 
with  each  other,  the  radius  and  the  ulna;  while  the  still 
smaller  bones  or  series  of  bones  on  beyond  the  radius  and 
the  ulna  are  called  the  fingers,  the  one  just  at  the  turn 
of  the  wing  corresponding  to  our  thumb,  the  middle  and 
longest  finger  corresponding  to  the  middle  or  main  exten- 
sion of  our  hand. 

As  organs  of  flight,   the  wings  are  provided  with 


270 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


stiff  quills  or  primaries,  the  one  lying  lowest  and  under- 
most being  called  the  first  primary.  These  are  reinforced 
by  the  secondaries,  lying  above  the  primaries,  and  gener- 
ally of  rounder  and  softer  outline.  The  barbs  of  the  pri- 
maries are  unequally  developed  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
central  shaft;  the  barbs  on  one  side  being  set  at  a  higher 
angle  and  often  being  of  shorter  length  than  the  barbs 


,SKoulcf< 


"UTrisi  ID  one  5 


2,n<f  dxg-tt 


3r(f  cfxgit 


Eltow 

FIG.  106. — Front  limb,  or  wing,  of  a  bird.     (After  Coues.) 

on  the  other  side  of  the  shaft.  In  the  secondaries,  the 
barbs  grow  more  nearly  symmetrically.  Complex  muscles 
connect  with  the  epidermal  sockets  from  which  these 
feathers  grow;  so  that  the  bird,  in  flight,  spreads  the  barbs 
apart  and  turns  them  so  as  to  " feather  its  oars"  in  the 
aerial  ocean  which  it  inhabits. 

The  upper  arm  is  not  free  from  the  forearm,  but  a 
fold  of  skin  crosses  the  space  between  them  and  a  strong 
muscle  supports  this  fold  of  skin  between  shoulder  and 
wrist,  diminishing  or  increasing  their  approach  to  each 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES    OF   BIRDS.  271 

other  as  the  bird  beats  the  air  with  its  wings,  or  keeping 
taut  and  tense  as  the  bird  soars,  apparently  a  motionless 
speck  in  the  blue  above  our  heads.  The  number  of  pri- 
maries is  usually  constant,  being  typically  ten ;  but  in  the 
highest  birds  the  first  primary  suffers  various  degrees  of 
reduction,  ranging  through  short  and  spurious  to  obsolete, 
in  which  last  case  it  has  disappeared,  and  but  nine 
primaries  remain. 

Like  the  hand,  the  wing  of  a  bird  is  capable  of  express- 
ing emotion.  The  challenge  to  battle,  the  attitude  of 
defense,  the  tenderness  of  the  nest-mate,  the  helpless  need 
of  the  tiny  nestling,  all  are  expressed  by  various  move- 
ments of  the  wings.  As  to  the  feathers  covering  it,  the 
wing  is  in  many  birds  one  of  the  most  highly  varied  areas 
of  the  plumage,  vying  with  the  head  and  the  tail  in  the 
brilliancy  of  its  coloring. 

The  wing  may  also  be  used  as  a  musical  instrument; 
though  in  this  case  it  is  instrumental  music,  of  course. 
The  woodcock  whistles  chiefly  through  the  use  of  its 
curiously  marrowed  outer  three  primaries. 

Coloration 

The  plumage  changes  with  the  season,  with  the 
nesting  period,  with  the  age  of  the  birds,  with  the  climate, 
and  with  a  change  of  food.  It  is  a  well-understood  fact 
that  birds  are  lighter  in  plumage  in  arid  regions  and 
darker  in  humid  regions.  For  instance,  one  of  our 
sparrows,  the  common  song  sparrow,  having  a  range  from 
Arizona  to  Alaska,  is  a  pale,  sandy-colored  bird  in  Arizona 
and  dark  sooty-brown  in  Alaska.  Between  these  ex- 
tremes are  to  be  found  nine  intergrading  species,  accord- 
ing to  Coues.  Some  animals  are  more  affected  by  climate 
than  are  others,  and  this  is  a  rather  extreme  example. 


272  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

It  is  a  fact  that  will  probably  hold  good  throughout  the 
animal  kingdom  that  organisms  of  high  nervous  organ- 
ization are  more  open  to  variation  in  any  of  its  modes 
of  approach.  These  climatically  produced  subspecies  are 
to  be  regarded  as  variations  upon  a  single  species ;  but  if 
the  climatic  barriers  were  destroyed,  or  if  some  climatic 
revolution  were  to  cut  off  the  intervening  species  completely 
from  each  other,  .then,  in  the  first  supposed  case,  the 
subspecies  would  gradually  disappear,  all  the  individuals 
tending  toward  one  form,  expressing  the  fact  that  climate 
had  the  same  measure  of  effect  upon  all ;  or,  in  the  second 
supposed  case,  the  subspecies  would,  in  time,  appear  as 
distinct  species,  each  having  its  own  definite,  persistent, 
unvarying  characteristics. 

The  matter  of  the  bird's  individual  plumage  seems 
to  have  definite  relation  to  its  environment  and  its  plan  of 
food-getting.  Colors  of  plumage  seem  to  be  deceptive, 
protective,  and  attractive.  Birds  spending  the  life 
round  in  one  region,  frequently  have  a  winter  and  a  summer 
plumage.  The  ptarmigan  in  its  winter  home  on  the 
mountain  slopes  is  snowy  white,  and  in  summer,  brown- 
mottled.  This  is  protective  coloration.  But  the  snowy 
owl,  which  lives  in  about  the  same  regions,  is  snow-white 
in  winter  also ;  and  often  makes  a  meal  off  the  ptarmigan 
because  of  this  fact.  This  is  deceptive  coloration. 
Fruit-eating  birds  are  often  brilliantly  colored  to  keep 
you  from  seeing  what  they  are  doing.  Not  that  they 
know  that  you  like  fruit  better  than  they  do,  or  are 
better  entitled  to  it  (either  fact  need  not  be  conceded), 
but  as  animal  against  animal  in  the  struggle  for  getting 
enough  to  eat,  when  they  are  best  nourished  by  fruit, 
they  are  best  assured  of  getting  enough  of  it  by  being 
fruit-colored. 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES    OF    BIRDS.  273 

With  exceedingly  few  exceptions,  the  male  is  more 
brightly  colored  than  the  female.  He  displays  his  brightest 
colors  at  the  opening  of  the  mating  season.  This  seems 
to  'be  for  the  attraction  of  the  females,  and  it  is  perhaps 
an  example  of  egoism.  The  most  attractive  male  would 
be  likely  to  attract  the  most  desirable  female  for  the 
strongest  nestlings.  Not  that  either  has  the  power  to 
reason  it  out  that  way,  and  see  the  desirable  end  before 
the  impulse  to  action,  but  the  instincts  of  the  individual 
tend  in  this  direction.  Living  begets  the  habit  of  living, 
and  that  living  is  naturally  to  the  fullest  extent  of  the 
individual's  powers. 


iS 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
MIGRATIONS  AND  NESTING  HABITS. 

Migrations. 

This  is,  of  all  bird  habits,  the  least  to  be  accounted 
for  biologically  or  on  any  other  grounds.  Migrations  are 
not  helter-skelter  movements,  but  are  like  the  well- 
planned  march  of  an  army  under  excellent  generalship. 
The  impulse  that  starts  the  birds  north  at  the  approach 
of  spring  in  the  Southland,  or  the  impulse  that  sends  timid 
birds  over  far  reaches  of  country,  across  vast  bodies  of 
water,  are  hardly  to  be  explained  by  the  single  fact  of 
obedience  to  the  instinct  of  food-getting.  Climatic 
changes,  as  well  as  seasonal  changes  must  have  played 
their  part.  Changes  in  continent  configuration,  through 
upheaval  or  subsidence,  may  have  occurred  slowly  enough 
to  establish  the  habit  of  travelling  a  certain  route  in  the 
periodic  migrations.  These  movements  are  not  simply 
north  and  south  movements,  but  many  of  the  migrating 
birds  take  an  east  and  west  course.  Habit  plays  an 
important  part ;  the  route  once  established,  the  bird  tends 
to  retrace  its  path,  whether  it  is  the  short  route  or  not. 
But  the  formation  of  the  habit  is  the  inexplicable  thing. 
If  we  call  the  place  where  the  birds  raise  their  young 
home,  then  leaving  may  be  brought  about,  possibly,  by 
the  stronger  instinct  of  food-getting ;  while  returning  to  it 
is  the  rising  of  the  first  instinct  again  into  dominance;  or 
it  may  be  that  it  is  simply  the  desire  of  the  individual  to 
bring  about  harmony  between  its  desire  and  its  sur- 

274 


MIGRATIONS  AND   NESTING  HABITS.  275 

roundings — the  raising  of  young  in  the  region  that  yields 
food  abundantly. 

Many  naturalists  and  some  biologists  have  discussed 
the  subject  with  profit.  Mr.  William  Beebe,  in  his 
interesting  book,  "Two  Bird  Lovers  in  Mexico,"  well 
describes  this  wonderful  periodical  journeying  back  and 
forth  of  the  birds.  He  visited  the  Mexican  lake  men- 
tioned in  March  of  a  Mexican  winter : 

"But  Chapala  honors  us  with  a  final  farewell.  The 
sun  is  sinking  in  a  cloudless  sky,  a  wind  rises  from  some- 
where, ruffles  the  face  of  the  pools,  and  brings  the  scent  of 
the  March  blossoms  to  us.  A  small  flock  of  white- 
fronted  geese  passes  rapidly  overhead,  not  very  high  up, 
when  all  at  once  there  floats  into  view  cloud  after  cloud 
of  purest  white,  stained  on  one  side  by  the  gold  of  the 
setting  sun.  We  dismount  and  look  up  till  our  bodies 
ache,  and  still  they  come,  silently  driving  into  the  darken- 
ing North.  The  great  imperative  call  of  the  year  has 
sounded;  the  drawing  which  brooks  no  refusal.  Our 
letters  from  the  North  tell  of  snow  and  blizzards — the 
most  terrible  winter  for  many  years.  No  hint  of  spring 
has  yet  been  felt  there,  while  here  in  the  tropics  no  frost 
nor  snow  has  come  through  the  winter,  food  is  abundant, 
hunters  few;  yet  a  summons  has  pulsed  through  the  finer 
arteries  of  Nature,  intangible  to  us,  omnipotent  with  the 
birds.  Until  dark,  and  no  one  can  tell  how  long  after, 
the  snow  geese  of  Labrador,  of  Hudson  Bay,  of  Alaska, 
perhaps  of  lands  still  unknown,  speed  northward." 

Nor  is  the  bird  tribe  the  only  one  that  migrates. 
Lemmings,  rats,  grasshoppers,  monarch  butterflies,  green 
bugs,  chinch  bugs,  salmon  and  many  others  of  the  fish 
kind,  migrate.  The  human  tribe  is  not  without  its 
records  of  historic  migrations,  to  say  nothing  of  those 


276  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

great  movements,  not  understood  except  as  to  their 
results  in  peopling  lands  now  widely  separated  by  oceans. 
The  Crusades  and  the  assembling  of  the  Pilgrim  fathers 
upon  our  own  shores,  offer  two  great  illustrations  of  this 
tendency  of  the  human  family  to  migrate.  In  the  whole 
range  of  the  animal  kingdom  the  individual  must  have 
the  inner  feeling  of  satisfaction  with  his  surroundings, 
or  there  will  crowd  upon  him  the  irresistible  impulse  to 
find  satisfactory  surroundings  elsewhere.  With  the 
human  family,  this  feeling  may  arise  through  reasoning 
out  the  non-beneficial  results  of  a  particular  condition; 
with  the  animals  below  man,  the  impulse  to  migration 
must  be  less  a  matter  of  mentation,  and  predominantly 
a  matter  of  physical,  bodily,  discontent.  Still,  with  the 
highest  of  the  lower  animals,  there  must  enter  the  first 
stirrings  of  the  impulses  that  are  mental  in  the  animals  a 
little  farther  up  in  the  scale  of  life. 

The  sexual  instinct  must  play  a  large  part  in  the 
migrations  of  birds.  This  instinct  may  be  regarded  as 
the  expression  of  the  desire  of  the  individual  to  live  on. 
Failing  this  possibility  within  himself,  then  to  live  in  his 
offspring;  and  from  this  latter  feeling  may  arise  the 
desire  to  place  the  offspring  in  the  most  desirable  con- 
ditions possible,  at  whatever  cost  to  himself. 

Birds  staying  in  one  region  the  year  round  must, 
if  it  is  in  our  latitude,  temperate,  change  their  fare  with 
the  season.  But  birds  that  are  dependent  upon  one 
kind  of  food,  as  fruit,  must  migrate  to  find  it.  Insect- 
eaters  must  also  migrate  to  follow  up  the  insect  hordes. 
Most  migratory  birds  of  the  western  States  pass  the 
winter  in  Mexico  and  Cuba.  The  same  general  statement 
may  be  made  for  the  birds  of  the  eastern  United  States, 
most  of  them  go  south  for  the  winter.  Many  of  the 


MIGRATIONS  AND   NESTING  HABITS.  277 

birds  nesting  in  the  states  east  of  the  Alleghanies  simply 
find  their  more  genial  winter  conditions  in  our  southern 
states,  and  do  not  leave  the  United  States.  The  purely 
insectivorous  species  may  cross  the  channel  to  Cuba  and 
winter  there,  or  in  some  other  of  the  West  Indies.  Some 
of  the  birds  of  both  East  and  West  go  to  Central  or  South 
America.  Many  of  the  eastern  sparrows,  the  bluebirds, 
and  the  robins  of  the  eastern  States  usually  winter 
from  the  Middle  to  the  Gulf  States.  The  bobolink,  one 
of  the  birds  rarely  seen  west  of  the  Missouri  river,  is  an 
illustration  of  habit  in  migration.  The  bird  winters  in 
South  America.  It  enters  the  United  States  on  its 
northward  journey,  by  way  of  Florida,  comes  northward 
through  the  Eastern  States,  and  from  there  strikes  west- 
ward to  about  the  Mississippi  line;  then  goes  northward 
to  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  eastern  Minnesota  and 
Manitoba,  where  it  nests.  In  the  autumn  it  reverses  its 
path  but  follows  the  same  zigzag  course,  bidding  farewell 
to  the  United  States  at  Florida's  southern  coast  on  its 
way  southward  to  its  far  South  American  winter  home. 
This  is  also  one  of  the  few  examples  of  the  two  sexes, 
migrating  separately;  the  males,  flying  in  large  flocks, 
precede  the  females  by  several  days. 

Any  observer  of  bird  life  in  the  plains  states  and  east 
of  the  Rockies,  knows  that  the  conditions  for  birds  have 
changed  wonderfully  in  the  last  fifteen  years,  or  even  ten. 
The  homestead  laws,  beneficial  to  the  settlers  willing  to 
become  pioneers  in  the  wild,  unsettled  western  country 
in  the  early  years  of  the  half-century  preceding  this, 
bore  part  of  their  fruit  in  the  spread  of  birds  into  the 
regions  thus  occupied.  Gradually,  many  birds  have  been 
encouraged  to  stay  all  the  year,  where  food  and  shelter  have 
offered.  The  robins,  the  Kentucky  cardinal,  the  blue  jay, 


278  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

the  meadow  lark,  often  winter  through  where  formerly 
they  went  southward  under  the  stress  of  food  lack  during 
the  cold  season.  In  the  vicinity  of  settlements,  villages, 
or  towns  in  the  Plains  States,  anywhere  from  thirty  to 
forty  species  of  birds  may  be  found  during  the  winter. 
Some  of  these  are  winter  visitors  from  the  north,  and 
others  are  birds  that  have  been  changed  from  summer 
visitors  to  permanent  residents. 

These  winter  birds  do  an  amazing  amount  of  good 
in  the  eating  of  weed  seeds,  and  of  winter  forms  of  insect 
life,  eggs,  grubs,  and  hibernating,  skulking  adults.  In 
Lapland,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  the  winter  birds  are 
provided  with  food  by  tying  grain  stalks  and  other  seed- 
producing  plants  to  tall  poles  or  to  tree  branches.  Dwell- 
ers in  new  agricultural  communities  might,  with  great 
benefit  to  themselves,  follow  the  custom,  especially 
during  the  seasons  when  excessive  snows  cover  the  usual 
food  supply. 

As  to  their  times  and  seasons  of  migration,  birds 
are  to  be  classified  as: 

All-the- year-rounds,  birds  staying  the  year 
round  in  a  locality. 

Summer  residents,  birds  staying  during  the 
summer  only  and  going  back  to  their  southern  home 
at  the  approach  of  cold  weather. 

Winter  residents,  birds  coming  from  the  north 
in  the  fall  and  going  back  to  their  northern  homes 
in  our  spring. 

Transients,  whose  winter  home  is  south  of  the 
given  locality,  and  who  go  north  for  the  nesting  season, 
returning  again  across  the  locality  at  the  approach 
of  northern  winter. 


MIGRATIONS  AND   NESTING  HABITS.  279 

Timid  birds,  or  the  smaller  birds,  as  the  wrens  and 
the  vireos,  travel  by  night  and  feed  by  day.  Bold,  strong- 
winged  birds  as  the  robins,  the  blackbirds,  and  some  of 
the  larks  fly  by  day  or  night,  can  go  long  distances,  and 
so  can  afford  to  stop  sufficiently  long  where  food  is 
abundant.  In  good  weather,  migrating  birds  fly  high, 
and  often  follow  some  guiding  feature  of  the  landscape, 
a  river  line,  particularly,  with  its  promise  of  food  and 
water;  though  they  seem  also  to  be  guided  by  mountain 
chains.  There  is  little  doubt  that  coast  lines  are  a  large 
factor  influencing  birds  in  their  migrations.  Usually 
fogs  or  storms  bring  them  lower,  probably  to  seek  addi- 
tional guiding  features  of  the  country  over  which  they 
may  be  passing ;  though  it  is  true  that  sight  alone  will  not 
suffice  to  explain  all  the  marvelous  activities  which  we 
witness  across  the  country  every  spring  and  autumn. 

Whatever  the  guiding  sense  may  be,  old  birds  seem 
to  possess  it  in  greatest  perfection.  It  is  likely  that 
many  young  birds  making  the  trip  for  the  first  time 
fall  by  the  way;  but  those  who  survive  have  "learned 
how"  by  the  next  year;  and  thus  a  permanency  of 
leadership  is  kept  up  which  becomes  a  strong  factor  in 
the  continuance  of  the  life  of  the  individual  within 
the  species.  Whatever  the  sense  by  means  of  which 
the  birds  maintain  their  direction  of  movement  toward 
a  fixed  point — we  call  it  orientation — fog  seems  to  produce 
much  the  same  effect  upon  them  as  it  does  upon  us,  when 
it  shuts  out  the  familiar  landmarks.  Man,  as  a  traveller, 
is  perhaps  the  most  helpless  of  all  animals.  Before  the 
invention  of  the  compass,  he  stayed  close  home;  and  it 
was  indeed  a  hardy  soul  that  ventured  on  the  sea  far 
from  the  home  shore.  Blind-folded,  he  travels  in  a 
circle;  or  lost  on  a  plain,  he  travels  again  and  again  the 


280  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

round  of  his  own  steps.  Let  him  pass  from  the  streets  of 
a  town  into  a  pathless  field,  and  he  will  be  quite  likely  to 
lose  his  way  unless  he  sees  some  objective  point  and  keeps 
it  in  view.  He  seems  not  to  possess  now,  if  he  ever  did 
possess,  any  inherent  sense  of  direction  with  respect  to 
himself.  This  sense  of  direction  is  possessed  by  many  of 
the  lower  animals,  and  by  some  of  them  in  a  marvelous 
degree. 

The  Nesting  Season. 

Spring  in  every  clime  is  the  nesting  season  for  birds. 
This  does  not  mean  April  or  May  the  world  round.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  equator,  it  is  September  and  October. 
Spring,  with  migratory  birds,  means  the  season  of  plant 
growth  in  their  nesting  homes.  In  the  tropics,  although  it 
is  warm  the  year  round,  the  nesting  season  is  as  well 
defined  as  it  is  in  more  northern  climes;  there  it  occurs 
with  the  return  of  the  tropical  rainy  season,  the  time 
when  fruits  and  seeds  are  abundant,  and  insects  are  abroad 
in  search  of  either  or  both.  Among  temperate  latitude 
birds,  the  birds  whose  young  are  fed  on  flesh  are  the  first 
birds  to  nest,  while  fruit-  and  insect-eaters  nest  later.  In 
the  middle  latitudes,  the  domestic  pigeon  may  nest 
earlier  than  even  the  flesh-eating  birds;  occasionally 
young  broods  are  heard  in  January,  if  the  winter  is  an 
open  winter. 

In  the  choice  of  a  mate,  birds  display  traits  surpris- 
ingly, sometimes  mortifyingly,  human.  The  believer 
in  the  theory  of  natural  selection  will  find  abundant 
material  for  study  if  he  will  observe  birds  during  the 
mating  season.  For  any  given  season,  the  rule  for  the 
union  of  birds  is  monogamy,  and  polygamy  is  the  excep- 
tion; and  so  far  as  present  knowledge  goes,  the  choice  of 


MIGRATIONS  AND   NESTING  HABITS.  281 

a  mate,  with  many  birds,  covers  a  period  as  long  as  the 
life  of  the  birds.  It  is  believed  of  the  eagle  that  his  choice 
of  a  mate  is  a  life-long  choice.  The  English  sparrow  is 
believed  to  be  polygamous,  and  our  domestic  fowls  are 
also.  The  bob- whites  are  monogamous,  a  dual  union 
being  an  exception  among  them,  although  they  belong  to 
the  same  order  of  birds  as  do  our  domestic  fowls. 

The  number  of  eggs  in  the  full  set  for  different  birds 
varies  from  one  to  twenty.  The  young  of  some  birds 
are  hatched  with  a  full  covering  of  down,  and  can  run 
about  or  swim  from  the  time  of  hatching;  such  birds  are 
called  praecocial.  Of  other  birds,  the  young  are  hatched 
naked  and  helpless,  and  must  be  long  fed  and  nourished 
in  the  nest;  these  birds  are  called  altricial.  Such  birds 
are  in  a  rnuch  less  advanced  condition  than  are  the  prae- 
cocial  birds,  and  the  nest  becomes  a  home  where  the 
development  takes  place  under  the  care  of  one  or  both 
parents.  This  fact  has  biological  significance;  the  longer 
the  time  of  development  from  birth  to  maturity,  the 
greater  the  degree  of  complexity  which  may  be  reached, 
and  the  higher  the  position  of  the  animal  in  the  scale  of 
life.  .  In  accord  with  this  fact,  we  have  within  the  class 
Aves,  a  possible  ranking  of  the  families  of  birds;  and  we 
shall  find  that  the  birds  of  highest  nervous  organization 
are  the  altricial  birds,  while  the  praecocial  birds  plainly 
rank  lower  in  the  bird  scale. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  the  period  intervening 
between  the  laying  of  the  eggs  and  the  hatching  of  the 
young  birds.  With  some  birds  the  eggs  are  left  loosely 
covered  but  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  loose 
covering  serving  to  prevent  undue  radiation  at  night. 
With  many  birds  the  eggs  are  covered  by  the  female, 
the  male  during  the  entire  time  taking  upon  himself 


282  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

the  care  of  feeding  the  sitting  bird  or  repairing  the  nest 
in  case  of  accident.  Among  the  highest  birds  within  this 
class,  the  male  in  addition  to  the  duties  just  mentioned 
defends  the  female  from  enemies  and  seems  to  try  to 
encourage  her  in  her  long  task  by  his  songs,  his  presence, 
and  his  manifest  attentions  beyond  those  necessary  in  the 
way  of  feeding  her.  If  affection  exists  among  birds,  that 
is,  affection  in  its  accepted  human  meaning,  the  conduct 
of  birds  during  the  time  of  home-building  and  caring  for 
the  nestlings,  is  to  be  interpreted  adequately  only  on  the 
basis  of  affection  of  a  degree  which  is  commensurate  with 
the  advancement  of  the  bird  in  the  scale  of  living.  Among 
the  highest  order  of  birds  we  have  numerous  illustrations 
of  the  interestedness  of  the  two  members  of  a  bird  house- 
hold in  each  other.  Anyone  who  has  ever  had  the 
pleasure  of  watching  a  pair  of  owls,  knows  that  one 
seldom  sees  so  genuine  a  display  of  affection  among  the 
human  tribe. 

In  others  of  the  bird  tribe,  the  female  has  to  take 
the  brunt  of  the  burdens  of  incubation,  the  male  taking 
her  place  only  a  short  time,  while  she  is  off  feeding. 
From  this,  the  conditions  vary  until  finally,  in  such 
birds  as  the  phalaropes,  there  is  such  a  division  of  labor 
that  the  care  of  the  eggs  and  of  the  young  also  falls  upon 
the  male  bird.  Truly,  the  male  phalarope  seems  to  be 
the  "new  man"  among  birds;  and  the  female  bird  is 
surely  the  "new  woman, "  so  care-free  a  life  does  she  lead 
while  her  mate  is  at  home  busy  with  home  duties ! 

The  ostriches,  largest  of  our  living  birds  that  have  a 
keeled  back  bone,  share  the  home  duties ;  the  male  assist- 
ing in  covering  the  eggs  in  their  sand-hollowed  nests. 
The  wood  duck,  handsome  fellow  that  he  is,  leaves  the 
incubation  and  the  care  of  the  young  to  his  mate.  It  is 


MIGRATIONS  AND   NESTING  HABITS.  283 

a  rare  thing  for  the  domestic  cock  to  pay  any  attention 
to  his  offspring.  It  really  seems  to  be  a  matter  of  con- 
descension on  his  part  when  he  brings  some  choice  morsel 
of  food  or  an  insect  to  the  attention  of  the  overburdened 
hen  mother  with  fifteen  or  twenty  little  chicks. 

As  to  the  feeding  and  care  of  the  young,  about  the 
same  individual  differences  hold  good;  though  for  the 
majority  of  birds  both  parents  share  in  the  feeding  of  the 
young  birds,  at  least  to  some  extent.  In  the  higher 
orders  both  parents  seem  to  have  equal  solicitude  for 
the  safety  and  comfort  of  their  young.  And  it  is  certainly 
no  easy  task  to  fill  the  gaping  mouths  from  daylight  to 
dark.  Sometimes  it  is  a  fine,  fat,  juicy  worm,  or  a  piece 
of  a  berry;  sometimes  it  is  a  half  dozen  seeds  beaten  to  a 
pulp ;  or  some  other  dainty,  regurgitated  morsel  from 
the  parent  crop ;  or  perhaps  it  is  a  little  fish  dropped  down 
the  willing  throat.  With  praecocial  birds  the  training 
usually  consists  in  showing  the  young  birds  where  and 
how  to  find  food  for  themselves.  You  have  doubtless 
seen  a  mother  duck  teaching  her  ducklings  to  spoon  up 
the  mud  from  the  bottom  of  the  pond  for  insect  larvae 
and  juicy  water  plants;  or  the  domestic  hen  showing  her 
chicks  how  to  make  the  dirt  fly  in  the  weed  patch,  or  in 
the  mellow  garden — good  angleworm  ground! 

June  and  July  are  the  high  tide  of  the  nesting  season 
with  our  temperate  latitude  birds,  and  on  some  especially 
hot  afternoon  one  may  be  surprised  to  find  some  mother 
robin,  catbird,  or  cedar  bird  astride  her  nest,  with  wings 
half  extended,  thus  attempting  to  shield  her  nestlings 
from  the  sun,  and  at  the  same  time  give  them  air. 

As  to  their  notions  of  cleanliness,  birds  adhere  more 
or  less  closely  to  standards,  which  also  seem  to  vary  with 
the  nervous  development  and  the  advancement  of  the 


284  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

birds  in  the  scale  of  life.  Here,  again,  they  exhibit  a 
resemblance  to  their  human  neighbors.  We  say  of  one 
farmer,  he  is  thrifty,  his  farm  is  well-kept;  of  another, 
he  is  shiftless,  and  everything  is  at  loose  ends.  House- 
keepers are  slovenly,  untidy,  or  disorderly;  or  they  are 
industrious,  orderly,  .artistic,  neat — the  other  sort  of 
homekeepers  about  whom  we  would  prefer  to  think. 
These  traits  seem  human  and  not  to  be  applied  to  other 
animals.  But  it  is  to  be  accepted  as  true  that  these 
notions,  along  with  many  other  traits  and  powers  in  this 
wonderfully  complex  nature  or  being  of  ours,  have  their 
roots  deeper  than  the  soil  in  which  we  grow;  and  we  shall 
understand  ourselves  better  for  studying  and  seeking 
out  the  glimpses,  and  sometimes  clear  evidences,  of 
our  own  powers  in  animals  lower  in  the  life  scale  than 
ourselves. 

The  instincts  clustering  about  home  and  home- 
making,  and  care  for  the  young,  are  among  the  finest 
of  all  the  instincts.  And  nowhere,  not  even  the  human 
tribe  excepted,  are  these  instincts  more  clearly  in  evidence 
than  among  the  members  of  the  higher  orders  of  birds; 
indeed  the  care  found  among  the  lower  orders  of  animals 
is  often  superior  to  the  care  vouchsafed  to  the  helpless 
infant  by  some  human  parents. 

With  these  instincts  as  with  others  that  have  been 
mentioned,  we  find  various  degrees  of  excellence  in  the 
making  and  tending  of  the  nest.  Some  birds  are  slovenly, 
careless  nest-builders,  scooping  out  a  hollow  in  the 
sand  of  the  sea  beach,  or  pushing  a  loose  pile  of  drift 
together  to  make  the  hollow  in  which  to  lay  the  eggs. 
Crows  and  jays  make  nests  that  look  as  if  they  might  fall 
to  pieces  if  the  female  birds  did  not  sit  upon  them  very 
carefully.  Blackbirds'  nests  are  little  better.  English 


MIGRATIONS  AND   NESTING  HABITS.  285 

sparrows  seem  to  stand  off  and  throw  together  almost  any- 
thing they  can  find  loose  and  carry  off,  and  will  contentedly 
rear  several  broods  in  such  a  nest  in  the  course  of  the  year; 
without  making  any  attempt  to  mend  or  clean  up.  When 
you  attempt  to  take  down  their  nest,  it  comes  to  pieces 
in  your  hand.  Contrast  such  nests  with  the  nest  built  by 
the  Baltimore  oriole,  or  the  bluebird,  the  tailor  bird,  or 
the  dainty,  lichen-covered  home  of  the  humming  bird. 

Again,  nests,  aside  from  their  construction,  are  filthy 
or  cleanly,  according  to  the  notions  of  cleanliness  possessed 
by  their  pair  of  owners.  The  pelicans  and  the  cormorants 
have  disgustingly  filthy  nests,  the  offal  and  garbage  and 
excrementitious  matter  being  allowed  to  accumulate ;  and 
in  the  case  of  the  cormorants,  its  fermentation  serves  to 
furnish  the  heat  necessary  to  incubate  the  eggs.  Crows 
and  jays  among  our  more  familiar  land  birds  do  hardly 
any  better.  In  strong  contrast  with  these  birds  stand 
the  careful  robin  or  the  oriole  or  the  dainty  cedar  bird 
mothers,  who  regularly  clean  their  nests  of  all  litter  left  by 
the  food,  or  of  excrementitious  matter;  keeping  house  so 
excellently  that  an  old  nest,  with  them,  usually  means 
a  weather-beaten,  not  a  dirty  nest.  Some  birds  mend 
their  nests  after  an  accident  from  a  storm  or  some  other 
happening.  Here,  too,  they  exhibit  varying  degrees  of 
success,  as  human  beings  measure  success  in  such 
matters. 

In  the  matter  of  personal  or  bodily  cleanliness,  birds 
have  varying  standards.  Some  insist  upon  a  clean  water 
bath  often  and  thoroughly  performed;  some  can  be  quite 
happy  if  the  bath  water  is  muddy  or  is  not  indulged  in 
each  morning ;  while  some  others  are  content  to  find  a  soft 
spot  in  the  middle  of  the  road  and  take  a  dust  bath.  If 
you  live  anywhere  near  a  water  course,  it  will  repay  you 


286  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

to  make  a  trip  to  it,  timing  your  arrival  so  as  to  reach  it 
and  conceal  yourself  before  the  birds  are  astir.  You 
will  enjoy  a  glimpse  of  bird  life  at  its  best;  and  if  you  will 
keep  perfectly  still  so  as  not  to  make  your  presence 
known,  you  will  see  these  feathered  creatures  freely  express 
their  individuality. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
THE  FOOD  OF  NESTLING  BIRDS.* 

While  adult  birds  may  be  valuable  to  farmers  and 
fruit-growers  at  any  time  of  the  year,  they  are  more 
valuable  at  the  season  of  the  year  when  they  are  raising 
their  young.  And  whatever  the  food  preferences  of  the 
adult  bird,  the  nestling  is  quite  likely  to  be  fed  on  soft- 
bodied  animals  such  as  insects.  •  Also,  at  this  time  the 
body-building  processes  are  so  rapid  that  the  food  needs 
of  the  young  bird  are  greatest  and  it  eats  more  than  at 
any  other  time  of  its  life. 

The  nesting  season  of  birds  corresponds  to  the 
season  of  the  year  when  agricultural  activities  are  at 
their  height,  and  the  nests  of  the  birds  which  are  valuable 
to  the  farmer  are  always  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  his  grow- 
ing crops.  On  an  average,  most  birds  raise  two  or  three 
broods  of  nestlings  in  a  year,  with  from  three  to  five  in  a 
brood,  though  the  broods  of  the  quails  and  the  owls 
include  more  than  either  of  these  numbers.  In  the  South 
a  spring  clutch  of  quail's  eggs  may  number  as  high  as 
thirty-two;  but  the  autumn  nestful  is  rarely  more  than 
ten,  about  what  it  is  in  the  North.  The  barn  owl  lays 
from  five  to  eleven  eggs;  the  marsh  owl  about  six;  while 
the  screech  owl  may  number  nine  eggs  before  she  begins 
sitting;  the  number  of  eggs  for  these  owls  varies  from 
four  to  nine. 

*For  much  of  the  material  under  this  heading  the  author  is  in- 
debted to  various  investigators  in  the  Government  Department  of 
Agriculture,  notably  Mr.  Judd  of  the  Biological  Survey. 

287 


288  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

The  labor  of  feeding  the  young  birds,  for  all  the  day- 
flying  sorts,  begins  before  sunrise  and  continues  until 
after  sunset ;  the  appetites  of  the  nestling  seem  insatiable ; 
the  meals,  as  we  would  call  them,  often  averaging  one 
every  two  minutes. 

Birds  which  do  not  change  their  diet  bring  up  their 
young  on  the  same  sort  of  food  as  they  themselves  eat. 
For  instance,  pelicans  and  terns  bring  up  their  young 
principally  on  fish.  But  gulls,  some  species  of  which  nest 
in  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Iowa,  have  developed  a  fondness 
for  soft- bodied  insects  and  worms,  and  may  frequently 
be  seen  following  the  plow,  searching  the  freshly-turned 
furrows  for  fat  angleworms.  Exclusively  insectivorous 
birds,  as  cuckoos  and  swallows,  feed  their  young  on  insects. 
Pigeons  and  doves  feed  their  young  on  starchy  seeds. 
Seed-eaters  and  birds  of  mixed  diet,  both  animal  and 
vegetable,  have  powerful,  muscular,  grinding  gizzards; 
and  may,  in  addition,  as  in  the  case  of  our  barnyard 
fowls,  mocking  birds,  and  some  other  birds  partly  fruit- 
eaters,  swallow  sand  or  small  pebbles  along  with  their 
food.  Birds  lack  teeth,  and  some  of  them  use  this  means 
of  supplying  the  lack,  thus  breaking  up  the  food  in  the 
gizzard  rather  than  in  the  mouth.  Those  birds  that  live 
on  insects,  worms,  or  soft-bodied  vertebrates,  have  thin- 
walled,  comparatively  weak,  non-muscular  stomachs. 

A  further  fact  is  interesting:  those  birds  which  in 
the  adult  stage  live  on  both  animal  and  vegetable  food 
feed  their  young  on  an  insect  diet.  This  fact  must  not 
be  lost  sight  of  in  estimating  the  value  of  a  bird.  What- 
ever the  character  of  the  stomach  of  the  parent  bird,  the 
nestling  has,  in  most  cases,  a  membranous  sack  with  but 
little  development,  and  cannot  digest  anything  but  the 
softest  and  most  readily  digestible  substances.  Vege- 


THE   FOOD    OF   NESTLING   BIRDS.  289 

tarian  birds,  with  the  exception  of  the  pigeons  and  the 
doves,  feed  their  young  for  a  time  on  soft-bodied  insects. 
The  crow  blackbird,  which  in  the  adult  stage  is  both 
insectivorous  and  a  seed-eater,  feeds  its  young  on.  soft, 
plump  spiders,  young  grasshoppers,  and  small  cutworms. 
The  pigeons  feed  their  young  on  pigeons'  milk,  which  is 
grain  in  semi-fluid  condition,  partially  digested  in  the 
parent's  crop  and  fed  to  the  young  bird  by  regurgitation. 

For  the  last  two  sorts  of  birds  mentioned,  as  the 
stomach  changes,  the  diet  changes;  beetles  become  a 
part  of  the  daily  fare,  until  by  the  time  the  blackbirds 
are  half -grown  their  stomachs  are  ready  to  digest  such 
hard  grains  as  corn.  This  may  be  given  to  them  freely, 
and  when  they  leave  the  nest,  corn  may  form  one-fourth 
of  their  diet. 

Following  is  a  tabulated  list  of  our  most  common 
birds  with  the  nestling,  and,  in  some  cases,  adult  food 
habits. 

Brown  Thrashers. — Adults  eat  one-fourth  fruit  and 
three-fourths  insects;  but  the  nestlings  are  exclusively 
insectivorous. 

Mocking  Bird. — Adult  eats  fruit  and  insects,  half  and 
half ;  but  feeds  its  nestlings  exclusively  on  insects,  such  as 
caterpillars,  spiders,  flies,  moths,  and  butterflies. 

Catbird  nestlings  are  fed  on  fruit  to  four  per  cent, 
of  their  diet,  the  other  ninety-six  per  cent  being  insects, 
such  as  spiders,  ants,  caterpillars,  and  grasshoppers. 

Cuckoos,  black-billed  and  yellow-billed,  prefer  a 
caterpillar  diet  to  any  other  kind,  and  this  is  varied  with 
leaf -eating  larvse.  One  stomach  examined  contained  two- 
hundred  fifty  caterpillars.  The  hairs  of  a  caterpillar  are 
usually  barbed  at  the  end,  and  are  apt  to  catch  in  the 
soft  mucous  lining  of  the  cuckoo's  stomach;  hence  the 
19 


FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

stomach  of  an  adult  bird  often  has  a  lining  of  these  hairs. 
The  yellow- billed  cuckoo  is  called  the  rain  crow.  Their 
nestlings  are  fed  on  smooth  caterpillars  at  first,  the  hairy 
ones,  being  added  later. 

Towhee  nestlings  are  fed  on  long-horned  beetles, 
weevils,  crickets,  grasshoppers,  spiders,  and  snails. 

Grosbeak  nestlings  are  fed  exclusively  on  insects. 
One  nest  observed  by  Mr.  Judd  was  built  in  a  potato  field, 
and  the  nestlings  were  fed  the  larvae  and  pupae  of  the 
beetles,  and  later  the  beetles  themselves. 

Sparrows,  as  a  Family. — Taking  it  by  the  large,  are 
granivorous  or  seed-eating,  as  to  the  adults,  to  two- 
thirds  of  their  diet;  but  their  nestlings  are  insectivorous, 
eating,  as  long  as  they  are  nestlings,  such  things  as  grass- 
hoppers, army  worms,  bugs,  weevils,  beetles,  cutworms, 
crickets,  earthworms,  cabbage  worms,  and  snails. 

It  may  be  said  of  the  sparrows  and  the  towhees,  both 
of  which  feed  snails  to  their  nestlings,  that  this  is  a  service 
not  to  be  despised  if  sheep-raising  is  carried  on  in  the 
region  where  these  birds  nest.  The  snail  has  been  found 
to  be  the  intermediate  host  for  the  river  fluke,  that  pest 
of  sheep  farmers. 

English  Sparrow. — The  adults  are  insectivorous  to 
only  about  one- tenth  of  their  diet,  according  to  Mr. 
Judd's  investigations;  yet,  in  the  cases  that  have  come 
under  the  author's  notice,  this  foreigner  is  gradually 
becoming  more  of  an  insect  eater.  Each  spring  and 
summer,  for  the  last  three  years,  these  birds  have  been 
watched  eating  cutworms.  The  nestlings,  and  here  is 
the  interesting  part  of  it,  are  insectivorous  to  fifty  per 
cent  of  their  diet,  being  fed  grasshoppers,  spiders,  cater- 
pillars, weevils,  cabbage  worms,  white  grubs,  and  cut- 
worms. 


THE    FOOD    OF   NESTLING   BIRDS.  2QI 

Red -winged  Blackbird. — Both  adults  and  nestlings 
are  seed-eaters  only  to  the  extent  of  one  per  cent  of  their 
diet;  the  other  ninety-nine  per  cent  being  weevils,  leaf 
beetles,  grasshoppers,  and  dragon  flies. 

Kingbird. — The  adults  feed  on  beetles,  many  of  them 
being  asparagus  beetles  and  rose  beetles,  besides  horse 
flies  and  other  flies  injurious  to  stock;  and  in  addition, 
the  adult  does  much  service  in  driving  away  crows, 
sharp-shinned  hawks,  and  Cooper's  hawk,  all  of  which, 
although  they  are  larger  than  he  is,  are  bravely  attacked 
by  the  kingbird.  He  feeds  his  nestlings  on  crickets, 
grasshoppers,  moths,  and  beetles. 

Cooper's  Hawk;  Sharp-shinned  Hawk;  Goshawk.— 
The  adults  feed  on  smaller  birds,  most  of  them  of  great 
value,  and  on  chickens,  quails,  grouse,  and  ducks.  The 
sharp-shinned  hawk  is  one  of  our  smallest  hawks,  measur- 
ing from  ten  to  twelve  inches  in  the  male  and  a  little 
larger  in  the  female.  The  upper  parts  are  slaty  gray  and 
the  under  parts  are  whitish.  The  wings  underneath  are 
white  and  the  tail  is  white  at  the  tip.  Cooper's  hawk 
is  a  much  larger  bird,  but  looks  very  much  like  the 
sharp-shinned  in  coloring.  The  tail  is  rounded  instead 
of  square.  The  pictures  of  these  birds  ought  to  be 
sought,  so  that  one  may  learn  just  how  they  look,  for 
the  purpose  of  recognizing  and  killing  them  whenever 
they  are  seen. 

Sparrow  Hawk. — Our  smallest  hawk;  bright  reddish- 
brown  on  crown,  back,  and  tail;  outer  tail  feathers  white, 
under  parts  of  the  body  yellowish;  some  black  bars, 
usually,  on  head,  neck,  and  breast.  This  hawk  is  almost 
exclusively  insectivorous,  eating  more  grasshoppers  than 
most  other  birds  put  together,  and  feeding  its  nestlings 
on  the  same  diet. 


2Q2  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

Marsh  Hawk. — One  of  the  most  valuable  destroyers 
of  meadow  mice  and  ground  squirrels.  This  hawk  differs 
from  most  of  its  kind  in  that  it  is  almost  exclusively  a 
ground  bird,  flying  low  to  beat  up  its  prey,  and  even 
nesting  on  the  ground.  Its  young  are  fed  on  bits  of  the 
same  food  as  the  adults  eat,  and  on  small  insects.  The 
food  of  adult  marsh  hawks  consists  of  field  mice,  shrews, 
and  moles,  and  such  other  small  rodents  as  may  be 
found. 

Adult  Red-Tails  (often  called  hen  hawks)  should 
bear  no  such  evil  reputation.  The  stomachs  of  many  birds 
examined,  show  it  to  be  a  mouse  eater,  varying  its  diet 
with  the  larger  insects,  small  rodents,  and  reptiles. 
The  stomachs  examined  in  winter  contained  poultry  and 
game  birds  in  the  ratio  of  fifty-four  out  of  five  hundred 
sixty-two  stomachs,  nine  per  cent  of  the  whole  number 
of  birds  examined. 

Barn  Owl. — Probably  the  most  valuable  rat  and  mice 
catcher  in  the  United  States.  Its  nestlings  are  fed  at 
night  when  mice  are  abroad — and  people  are  asleep. 

Burrowing  Owl. — Adults  eat,  and  feed  their  nest- 
lings, grasshoppers,  beetles,  mice,  frogs,  snakes,  lizards, 
and  crayfish. 

Screech  owls  eat  mice  and  many  insect  pests;  feed 
their  young. the  same  sorts  of  food  as  they  themselves  eat. 

As  to  the  owls  in  general,  if  the  boy  or  the  man  who 
considers  them  a  pest  will  go  to  the  nests  of  these  birds, 
he  will  always  find  evidence  on  the  ground  below  the 
nest  of  the  nature  of  the  food  of  these  birds.  They 
swallow  their  food  whole  and  afterward  eject  through 
the  m6uth  the  indigestible  portions,  such  as  bones,  hair, 
or  chitinized  insect  legs,  though  chitin  yields  more 
readily  to  digestive  fluids  than  do  either  bones  or  hair. 


THE    FOOD    OF    NESTLING    BIRDS.  293 

Mourning  doves  feed  their  young  on  seeds  of 
spurge,  ragweed,  sunflowers,  pigeon  grass,  and  corn,  all 
reduced  to  what  is  called  pigeons'  milk.  One  nestling 
examined  by  Mr.  Judd  had  seventy-five  hundred  sorrel 
seeds  in  its  crop. 

Gallinaceous  birds  are  not  exclusively  vegetarians 
as  adults,  and  their  young,  as  far  as  they,  have  been 
investigated,  are  fed  largely  on  insect  diet  at  first.  Prairie 
chickens  and  quails  feed  their  young  on  cutworms,  army 
worms,  chinch  bugs,  twelve-spot  cucumber  beetles,  and 
Rocky  Mountain  locusts.  Mongolian  pheasants,  now 
being  introduced  into  some  parts  of  the  country,  greedily 
eat  potato  beetles,  are  bred  for  that  purpose  in  some  parts 
of  the  Middle  West.  Whether  they  can  be  induced  to 
breed  freely  and  naturally  in  this  country  remains  to  be 
seen. 

Cranes  feed  their  nestlings  on  earthworms  and 
carabid  beetles.  One  nestling  two  months  old  ate 
seventeen-year  cicadas,  a  quart  of  them  a  day,  as  long  as 
the  mother  crane's  "find"  held  out. 

Warblers  eat,  as  adults,  and  feed  their  nestlings,  the 
smaller  insects,  such  as  leaf-eaters,  both  bugs  and  beetles, 
and  plant  lice. 

Baltimore  Oriole. — In  an  examination  of  one  hundred 
stomachs,  thirty-four  per  cent  of  the  food  was  cater- 
pillars, the  remainder  mainly  other  insects,  very  little 
being  fruit,  and  that  principally  of  the  wild  sorts,  and  no 
trace  of  grapes.  (John  Burroughs  accuses  the  bird  of 
being  a  grape-eater.) 

Chickadees. — Winter  food  of  the  adults  consists  of 
insects'  eggs,  such  as  tent  caterpillar  and  fall  canker-worm 
eggs,  winter  forms  of  plant  and  scale  lice,  and  many  com- 
mon and  injurious  hibernating  forest  tree  pests.  Their 


2Q4  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

visits  should  be  encouraged  as  much  as  possible.  To  en- 
courage a  bird  means  to  let  it  carefully  alone,  and  see  that 
other  people  treat  it  in  the  same  way.  In  unusually 
severe  weather,  when  snow  covers  the  natural  food  supply 
of  birds,  encouragement  may  mean  providing  the  little 
workers  with  artificial  food  to  tide  them  over  until  their 
natural  food  again  offers.  For  flesh-  and  insect-eaters, 
this  might  be  accomplished  by  hanging  meaty  bones  in 
trees,  as  suggested  by  the  National  Humane  Society. 
Fastening  netting  about  the  meat  might  slow  up  the 
carrying  away  of  the  meat  by  the  larger  birds  and  give 
the  little  ones  a  better  chance. 

•  Nuthatches  and  brown  creepers  perform  a  service 
difficult  for  man  to  do  for  himself.  The  eggs  of  many  of 
our  insects  are  so  small  as  to  escape  the  closest  search  on 
our  part;  but  these  tiny  birds,  chickadees,  nuthatches, 
and  brown  creepers,  are  well  able  to  search  them  out; 
and  in  the  long  cold  winters  require  large  quantities  of 
them  to  keep  themselves  going.  If  you  see  a  grayish 
shadow  of  a  little  bird,  hustling  up  and  down  the  tree 
trunks,  giving  vent  to  a  shrill,  jerky  note  as  it  glides  in 
and  out  of  the  bark  crevices,  do  not  throw  a  stone  at  it. 
Ten  chances  to  one,  it  is  one  of  these  little  birds  getting  its 
hard-earned  dinner,  and  thus  ridding  us  of  numerous  pests. 

Downy  Woodpeckers. — Feed  their  young  on  wood- 
boring  insects  and  their  adult  forms,  also  on  plant  lice, 
scale  and  bark  lice.  In  winter,  the  adults  search  tree 
trunks  for  hibernating  insects,  borers,  and  insect  eggs. 

Hairy  Woodpeckers. — Seek  more  boring  beetles  and 
fewer  ants  than  does  the  downy ;  otherwise  the  same  as  the 
downy. 

Flicker. — Two  stomachs  examined  contained  three 
thousand  ants  apiece.  Some  of  the  ants  were  the  wood-- 


THE    FOOD    OF   NESTLING   BIRDS.  295 

boring  sorts,  and  the  others  were  like  the  ants  eaten  by  the 
downies,  the  sorts  that  cultivate  plant  lice.  Flickers 
also  eat  borers,  but  they  are  much  more  largely  ground 
birds  than  are  any  others  of  the  woodpeckers. 

All  Mr.  Judd's  observations  showed  clearly  that, 
except  pigeons  and  doves,  the  birds  examined  fed  their 
young  first  on  animal  food,  and  changed  the  diet  only 
gradually,  and  this  only  when  the  parent  birds  were  not 
insect-  or  flesh-eaters.  This  is  due  not  only  to  the  fact  of 
the  soft,  lax  walls  of  the* young  bird's  stomach,  but  also 
to  the  other  fact  that  animal  food  in  general  has  a  higher 
nutritive  value,  and  is  more  easily  digested  by  the  bird 
than  is  vegetable  food. 

Professor  Samuel  Aughey  gives  some  interesting 
figures  calculated  to  show  vividly  how  much  a  bird  may 
really  accomplish  in  the  destruction  of  insects.  He 
says:  " During  an  outbreak  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
locusts  in  the  yo's  I  saw  a  long-billed  marsh  wren  carry 
thirty  locusts  to  her  nestlings  in  one  hour.  At  this 
rate  for  seven  hours  a  day,  a  brood  would  consume 
two  hundred  ten  locusts  per  day.  And  the  passerine 
birds  of  the  eastern  half  of  Nebraska,  allowing  only 
twenty  broods  to  the  square  mile,  would  destroy  daily. 
162,771,000  of  the  pests.  The  average  locust  weighs 
about  fifteen  grains,  and  is  capable  each  day  of  consuming 
its  own  weight  of  standing  forage  crops,  corn  and  wheat. 
The  locusts,  therefore,  eaten  by  the  nestlings  would  have 
been  able  to  destroy  in  one  day  174,397  tons  of  crops, 
which  at  $10  a  ton,  would  have  been  worth  $1743.97. 
This  case  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  vast  good 
that  is  done  every  year  by  the  destruction  of  insect  pests 
fed  to  nestling  birds."  (From  Report  of  the  Entomo- 
logical Commission,  1900.) 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM   AND    SPECIAL 
FUNCTIONS. 

As  in  nearly  all  vertebrates,  the  nervous  system  may 
be  divided  into  the  cerebro-spinal  and  the  sympathetic 
system,  with  the  brain  as  the  front  dilation  of  the  nerve 
axis.  Beginning  with  the  lowest  vertebrate  animals  with 
a  nervous  axis,  the  front  end  of  the  nerve  cord  is  practically 
without  dilation,  that  is,  there  are  practically  no  evident 
lobes,  such  as  characterize  the  human  brain,  for  example. 
In  fishes,  there  are  the  characteristic  lobes,  front  and  rear 
brain,  and  olfactory  and  optic  lobes,  but  of  nearly  equal 
size,  the  optic  lob'es  being  somewhat  the  largest  of  the 
four.  In  the  reptilian  brain  the  lobes  are  of  more  un- 
equal size,  owing  to  the  encroachment  of  the  front  brain 
upon  the  cavity  occupied  by  the  other  lobes  of  the  front 
end  of  this  nerve  axis.  In  birds  the  front  brain  partly 
.covers  the  olfactory  and  the  optic  lobes,  and  is  relatively 
larger  than  it  is  in  reptiles.  That  is,  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres are  larger  than  in  any  o'f  the  animals  below  the 
birds.  This  relative  proportion  of  the  four  lobes  is  one 
of  the  bases  of  determining  the  place  of  an  animal  in  the 
scale  of  life.  Of  course,  there  must  also  enter  the  propor- 
tion of  gray  matter  to  white,  and  the  fineness  of  the  matter 
making  up  the  nervous  tract,  as  well  as  the  comparative 
size  of  the  four  lobes. 

There  are  the  familiar  twelve  pairs  of  cranial  nerves, 
and,  as  in  man,  the  number  of  spinal  nerves  corresponds 

296 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM  AND    SPECIAL   FUNCTIONS.        297 

with  the  number  of  vertebrae.  The  sympathetic  system 
is  made  up  of  a  double  cord,  running  on  each  side  of  the 
vertebrae  lengthwise. 

Sight. 

The  sense  of  sight  is  amazingly  developed  in  birds, 
seemingly  far  beyond  the  power  of  vision  in  man,  unless 
it  is  aided  by  some  faculty  which  does  not  come  to  the 
aid  of  the  sense  in  man.  The  function  of  accommoda- 
tion is  marvelously  developed.  You  have  seen  a  hawk 
swoop  down  with  a  rush,  and  yet  not  fail  to  reach  the 
prey  sought.  Such  rapidity  of  change  in  the  function  of 
accommodation  in  the  human  eye  would  be  a  serious  tax. 
Humming  birds  fly  with  more  rapidity  of  motion  than 
the  human  eye  can  follow,  yet  they  avoid  obstacles  and 
find  the  flower.  You  and  I  have  considerable  difficulty 
in  locating  angleworms,  even  with  diligent  digging,  before 
we  start  off  fishing;  but  a  robin  will  sit  on  the  tree  bough, 
apparently  looking  about  him,  and  all  at  once  will  dart 
down  and  complacently  pull  up  a  fine,  fat  worm.  The 
bald  eagle  up  in  the  blue  sees  an  osprey  fishing,  and  is 
thereby  spared  the  trouble  of  getting  a  meal  for  himself. 
The  osprey 's  dash  out  of  the  depths  of  the  same  aerial 
ocean  to  the  water  surface,  just  beneath  which  a  fish  is 
swimming,  is  even  more  wonderful. 

Structurally,  the  eye  consists  of  the  corneal  window, 
the  crystalline  lens,  the  iris,  the  conjunctiva,  and  the  cavity 
filled  by  the  aqueous  humor.  Two  eyelids  are  present  as  in 
man,  and  there  is  also  a  third,  the  nictitating  membrane; 
this  third  eyelid  moves  across  the  ball  of  the  eye,  at  right 
angles  with  the  other  lids,  from  the  inner  corner  to  the 
outer.  Owls,  which  do  not  see  well  in  the  daytime,  sit 
with  this  membrane  across  the  eyeball.  Threaten  to  hit 


298  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

a  hen  or  a  duck,  and  you  will  see  this  nictitating  mem- 
brane glide  across  the  eyeball. 

Smell. 

As  to  the  sense  of  smell,  there  is  no  such  acuteness  of 
this  sense  as  is  found  among  the  insects.  This  is  the 
sense  of  which  the  human  family,  also,  is  possessed  in  a 
smaller  degree  than  are  many  of  the  animals  below  man. 
Some  of  the  birds  seem  to  possess  the  sense  in  a  greater 
degree  than  does  man;  but  in  the  majority  of  birds,  the 
sense  seems  developed  to  about  the  same  degree  as  in 
our  own  case. 

The  birds  which  have  the  keenest  sense  of  smell  are 
the  carrion-eating  birds,  vultures  and  buzzards.  And 
even  these  must  be  guided  largely  by  the  sense  of  sight  in 
finding  their  food.  They  would  seem  rather  to  sight  their 
food  before  they  smell  it.  So  far  as  their  habits  have  been 
observed,  the  birds  are  first  seen  circling  high  in  the  air 
above  the  carcass,  or  they  may  be  seen  coming  to  earth 
to  observe  whether  some  small  animal  they  have  sighted 
is  alive  or  dead.  Though  the  animal  may  not  have  moved, 
that  sense  is  the  sense  through  which  the  final  judgment 
is  made  in  such  a  case;  this  seems  undoubted.  On  the 
side  of  the  animal  which  is  the  object  of  the  quest,  the 
conduct  is  even  more  puzzling.  Being  alive,  it  seems  not 
to  fear  the  carrion  bird,  and  does  not  run  to  cover ;  but  let 
a  hawk  come  near  such  an  animal,  and  off  it  makes  to  the 
nearest  hiding  place. 

The  black  vulture,  which  is  about  as  tame  in  some 
of  our  southern  towns  as  our  own  domestic  fowls,  probably 
uses  smell  more  than  sight  in  locating  its  food,  since  so 
much  of  its  time  is  spent  on  the  ground.  That  a  substance 
may  be  perceived  as  a  smell  it  is  necessary,  at  least  in. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM  AND    SPECIAL   FUNCTIONS.         299 

the  animals  that  smell  by  means  of  a  localized  organ :  first, 
that  the  substance  be  capable  of  giving  off  minute  portions 
of  itself  which  are  so  much  lighter  than  air  that  they  move 
suspended  in  it,  and  are  readily  carried  by  currents  of  air. 
It  is  supposed  that  aquatic  animals  do  not  smell  as  air- 
inhabiting  animals  do;  though  it  is  possible  that  they 
become  sensible  of  odors  by  some  other  means,  as  by 
solutions  in  water.  The  body  membrane,  underneath 
which  the  branches  of  the  olfactory  nerve  are  spread,  must 
have  its  mucous  surface  soft  and  moist.  These  atoms  of 
the  odor-bearing  substance,  striking  this  surface  and  being 
moistened  by  its  fluids,  affect  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring 
about  the  sensation  of  some  particular  thing,  as  violets, 
roses,  new-mown  hay,  fried  potatoes,  ploughed  ground; 
or  to  the  vulture,  carrion,  its  sense  in  this  respect  being 
keener  than  the  sense  of  man  for  the  same  odor. 

As  to  the  smelling  organ  of  the  bird,  the  nostrils  open 
externally  upon  the  upper  mandibles;  and  the  nasal 
chamber  back  of  each  nostril  communicates  with  the 
mouth,  smell  being  connected  with  taste,  as  it  is  in  the 
human  tribe.  The  olfactory  nerve  enters  each  nasal 
chamber  by  a  single  opening ;  and  its  branches  are  spread 
under  the  membrane  lining  the  chamber. 

Hearing. 

Birds  rival  man  in  their  receptivity  to  musical  har- 
monies, and  in  the  extent  to  which  they  are  aroused  by 
musical  vibrations  of  the  atmosphere.  Quickness  and 
accuracy  of  hearing  are  remarkable  in  the  genus  of  birds 
to  which  the  mocking  bird  belongs.  He  will  render 
chance  notes  more  accurately  than  can  ninety-nine  out  of 
a  hundred  human  beings.  Yet  a  bird's  ear  is  structurally 
very  simple.  There  is  usually  no  external  ear,  but  some 


300  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

ear  coverts  instead.  The  drum  of  the  ear  is  very  near  the 
surface  of  the  head.  In  the  middle  ear,  the  complex 
mechanism  found  in  the  human  ear  is  reduced  to  a  single 
bone,  the  columella ;  and  the  tympanic  cavity  is  connected 
with  the  mouth  by  a  broad  passageway,  instead  of  the 
slender  Eustachian  tube  of  the  human  ear.  In  the  inner 
ear,  the  cochlea  is  shorter  and  is  not  coiled  tightly; 
neither  do  the  semicircular  canals  have  the  position  of 
these  organs  in  the  human  ear.  They  lie  in  three  separate 
planes  in  the  ear  of  the  bird. 

Taste. 

The  principal  organ  of  taste  is  the  tongue,  which  is 
innervated  by  the  glossopharyngeal  nerve,  whose  branches 
go  to  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  as  well  as  to  the  tongue. 
The  sense  is  intimately  connected  with  the  sense  of  smell. 

Touch. 

The  beak  is  the  principal  organ  of  touch,  although 
there  is  a  distributed  sense  of  touch,  not  localized  but 
distributed  over  the  entire  body,  and  having  definite 
connection  with  the  down  or  feather  covering. 

Respiration. 

The  lungs  of  birds  are  not,  as  in  mammals,  hemmed 
into  a  thoracic  portion  of  the  chest  or  thorax,  but  are 
more  like  the  lungs  of  reptiles.  They  begin  at  the  apex 
of  the  chest  in  front  and  extend  backward  in  the  upper 
region  of  the  thorax  and  the  vertebrae  as  far  as  the  kid- 
neys. They  are  not  lobed  nor  do  they  float  free,  but  are 
fixed  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  dorsal  cavity,  and  are 
covered  on  the  lower  side  with  a  membrane  or  pleura. 
The  air  enters  the  nostrils,  but  does  not,  as  in  the  human 
animal,  pass  through  the  windpipe  directly  to  the  lungs. 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM  AND    SPECIAL   FUNCTIONS.        301 

When  a  bird  breathes,  it  breathes  all  through  its  body,  in 
its  many  intermuscular  spaces,  and  in  many,  if  not  most 
of,  its  bones.  In  addition  to  these  aerating  chambers, 
the  pelicans  and  the  cormorants  have  a  remarkable  system 
of  intercellular  tubes  just  underneath  the  skin.  This 
remarkable  pneumaticity  makes  it  possible  for  the  bird 
to  accomplish  its  wonderful  flights,  calling  for  huge  car- 
bon dioxid  excretion,  and  immense  oxygen  supply. 
From  the  lungs,  there  extend  through  the  body  of  the 
bird,  chambers  communicating  with  the  intermuscular 
cavities  of  the  front  thorax,  the  hind  thorax,  the  wings, 
the  abdomen,  the  legs,  and  the  subcutaneous  regions, 
when  they  are  present,  these  forming  the  auxiliary 
respiratory  chambers. 

Digestive  System. 

The  modifications  of  the  alimentary  canal  of  birds 
are  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  carnivorous  and  vegetable 
feeders  among  the  insects.  The  connection  of  the  tract 
with  the  blood  circulation,  and  the  manner  and  place  of 
oxygenation  of  the  food  current,  more  closely  resembles 
the  arrangement  in  man,  as  birds  have  a  definite  circulat- 
ory and  respiratory  system. 

The  entrance  is  through  the  mouth,  which  enlarges 
into  the  gullet  or  esophagus.  In  many  seed-eaters,  this 
gullet  serves  for  the  retention  of  large  quantities  of  food 
seeds  until  they  can  be  digested.  The  seed-eaters  are 
among  the  most  nervously  organized  of  the  birds,  use  up 
the  most  food,  consume  the  most  oxygen,  and  must  eat 
voraciously  to  build  up  after  this  tissue  exhaustion. 
Pelicans  have  the  gullet  enormously  enlarged  to  serve  in 
prehension  of  their  food  as  well  as  its  retention. 

Below  the  gullet  the  canal  is  usually  modified  into  a 


302  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

crop,  a  side  extension  of  the  tube.  In  seed-eaters,  this 
extension  is  larger  than  it  is  in  the  flesh-eating  birds,  and  is 
an  efficient  division  of  the  digestive  tract.  Here  the  food 
is  macerated  and  mixed  with  such  digestive  fluids,  usually 
saliva,  as  are  discharged  into  this  part  of  the  tract.  In 
birds  which  feed  their  young  by  regurgitation,  this  crop 
is  the  portion  of  the  digestive  tract  from  which  the  com- 
minuted and  partially  prepared  food  is  thrown  back  into 
the  mouth  of  the  parent  bird  to  be  transferred  to  the 
mouth  of  the  nestling.  Below  this  crop  is  the  proven- 
triculus,  where  the  foods  are  peptonized  if  they  are  starchy ; 
or  the  analysis  of  the  proteids  is  begun  here  in  the  case 
of  the  carnivorous  birds.  The  food  mass  with  the  two 
digestive  fluids  from  above  are  then  pushed  forward  into 
the  gizzard  or  muscular  stomach.  If  the  bird  is  gran- 
ivorous  or  subsists  upon  a  mixed  diet  of  hard  and  soft 
substances,  the  movement  of  the  strong  muscular  walls 
of  the  gizzard  practically  finish  the  comminution  of  the 
foods  into  a  soft  yielding  mass. 

Very  little  absorbing  of  the  food  current  takes  place 
up  to  this  point,  but  from  here  on  the  lacteal  absorbents 
communicate  with  the  lining  walls  of  the  canal,  picking 
up  such  parts  as  are  ready  for  absorption,  scantily  at 
first,  but  in  the  after-part  of  the  canal,  abundantly. 
From  the  stomach,  the  food  passes  into  the  intestine, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  modified  into  the  three  familiar 
portions  of  the  human  intestine.  At  its  upper  end,  the 
food  receives  the  digestive,  chylifying  fluids  of  the  liver 
and  the  pancreas.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  intestine, 
the  food  may  be  retained  in  lateral  dilations  of  this  large 
intestine,  called  caeca.  The  lacteals  communicate  abund- 
antly with  these  caeca,  and  increase  enormously  the 
amount  of  prepared  food  which  thus  may  be  absorbed,  by 


THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM  AND    SPECIAL   FUNCTIONS.        303 

reason  of  so  large  an  increase  of  absorbing  surface. 
Such  small  part  of  the  food  mass  as  is  not  absorbed  here, 
passes  out  of  the  body  by  way  of  the  rectum  and  the 
anus. 

Such  prepared  food  as  is  gathered  from  the  alimentary 
canal  by  the  lacteals  and  papillate  absorbents  of  the  lining 
wall,  by  way  of  the  lymphatic  conductors,  is  emptied  into 
the  thoracic  duct  and  then  thrown  into  the  blood  circu- 
lation, to  be  oxygenated  in  the  lungs,  much  as  the  same 
process  is  accomplished  in  man. 


ORDERS  OF  BIRDS  (COUES). 

Passeres,  the  perching,  sparrow-like  birds. 

Picariae,  birds  of  such  nature  as  the  cuckoos  and  the 
humming-birds,  very  much  unlike  each  other,  but  also 
quite  unlike  the  passerine  birds,  and  really  put  into  a  class 
together  because  they  will  not  fit  anywhere  else. 

Psittaci,  parrot-like  birds. 

Raptores,  the  birds  of  prey. 

Columbae,  doves  and  their  relatives. 

Gallinae,  the  game  birds. 

Limicolae,  the  shore  birds. 

Herodiones,  the  herons  and  the  stork-like  birds. 

Alectorides,  the  swamp  or  marsh  birds. 

Longipennes,  the  long- winged  swimmers. 

Lamellirostres,  duck-like  and  goose-like  birds. 

Steganopodes,  seashore  birds  with  full- webbed  feet. 

Pygopodes,  diving  birds. 


305 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


PASSERES. 

Perchers  Proper — Altricial  Birds. 

This  order  includes  about  half  of  all  the  known  birds. 
Their  range  is  from  tropical  to  arctic  regions.  Practically 
all  the  countries  of  the  known  world  have  their  character- 
istic Passeres,  while  there  are  some  genera  that  are 
practically  common  to  all.  This  is 
the  order  of  the  robins,  the  thrushes, 
the  catbirds,  the  sparrows,  the  crows, 
and  the  jays. 

The  feet  are  perfectly  adapted  for 
perching,  first,  by  the  strength  and 
position  of  the  hind  toe,  and  by  the 
fact  that  it  can  be  placed  opposite  to 
any  one  of  the  other  toes,  much  as  the 
human  thumb  can  be  apposed  to  any 
one  of  the  fingers.  (Fig.  107.)  No  one 
of  the  front  toes  is  capable  of  being 
turned  backward,  and  all  the  toes  are 
separate  to  their  bases.  With  one 
exception  there  are  always  four  toes, 
and  the  bird  which  makes  this  excep- 
tion does  not  appear  among  our  birds  so  it  need  not  give 
us  any  trouble.  The  passerine  foot  comes  nearest  to  the 
human  hand  in  the  range  of  its  adaptability. 

The  Passeres  were  named  by  Cuvier  in  1798;  the 
name  is  the  plural  of  the  Latin  noun,  passer,  meaning  a 
sparrow.  The  group  with  its  present  limits  was  estab- 

307 


FIG.  107. — Typical 
passerine  foot. 


308  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

lished  in  1829.     The  birds  included  represent  the  highest 
type  of  physiological  development  among  birds. 

With  respect  to  the  respiratory  system,  birds  rival 
man,  having  a  more  complicated  system  than  does  the 
human  animal.  Some  of  the  animals  below  the  birds  are 
cold-blooded;  the  blood  of  some  of  them  is  oxygenated 
only  periodically;  of  others,  only  a  portion  of  the  blood 
is  aerated.  In  those  animals  where  the  blood  is  oxygen- 
ated continuously,  the  consumption  of  food  is  most 
rapid,  and  the  temperature  is  highest.  The  body  tem- 
perature of  man  is  ninety-eight  and  forty-six  hundredths ; 
but  for  birds,  body  temperatures  range  from  one  hundred 
four  to  one  hundred  ten.  Literally,  these  are  the  hot- 
blooded  animals.  In  the  Passeres,  the  highest  range 
of  the  temperature  is  reached.  Nothing  could  convince 
one  more  fully  of  these  facts  than  one  of  these  little, 
nervous,  frightened  wild  birds  held  in  the  hand.  The 
heart,  pounding  rapidly  against  the  hand,  seems  about 
to  spill  the  life  blood  of  the. tiny  feathered  creature,  as 
the  result  of  the  extreme  nervous,  tension  under  which  it  is 
suffering.  The  Passeres  consume  the  most  oxygen  and 
live  the  fastest,  that  is,  under  the  heaviest  tax  upon  the 
vital  organs,  of  all  the  birds. 

The  order  is  divided  into  two  sub-orders  on  the 
basis  of  the  degree  of  development  of  musical  apparatus 
in  the  throat.  In  one  sub-order,  the  Oscines,  the  musical 
apparatus  reaches  a  more  or  less  high  degree  of  perfection. 
Several  pairs  of  additional  muscles  are  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  sounds  made  by  the  bird,  giving  to  the  birds 
forming  this  sub-order  a  range  of  musical  ability  not 
equalled  by  the  other  orders.  In  the  second  sub-order, 
the  Clamatores,  literally  the  crying  birds,  the  musical 
apparatus  is  not  so  highly  developed. 


PASSERES. 


309 


In  all  the  families  of  the  order,  there  are  nine  or  ten 
primaries,  and  the  secondaries  are  more  than  six. 

The    birds    are    all    insectivorous    or   granivorous, 


I 

a, 
S3 


though  some  of  the  species  ask  fruit  as  a  reward  for 
killing  scores  of  insects.  Yet  it  is  notably  the  insect- 
ivorous order.  Other  orders  combine  this  food  with 


3IO  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

other  foods  (Fig.  108);  some  do  not  eat  insects  at  any 
time ;  and  there  are  a  few  birds  in  this  order  which  do  not 
accomplish  the  full  amount  of  good  which  might  be 
expected  of  a  passerine  bird. 

The  English  sparrow  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1885,  as  an  unwelcome  visitor.  He  is  quarrelsome  and 
often  drives  away  our  valuable  birds;  his  wife  is  a  dirty 
and  slatternly  housekeeper;  and  when  one  of  the  tribe 
has  his  feelings  ruffled  in  the  slightest  degree,  all  his  kin 
within  telegraphing  distance  assemble  to  do  him  justice. 
Nevertheless  he  is  not  to  be  seized  by  the  scruff  of  the 
neck  and  thrown  out  bodily,  for  lie  is  learning  a  little  bird 
sense  in  his  new  environment,  and  is  doing  some  good  to 
crops  on  his  own  account.  Here  is  a  list,  up  to  present 
date,  of  his  accomplishments,  American  accomplish- 
ments ;  and  whatever  he  does,  his  wife  does ;  for,  although 
she  is  possessed  of  considerable  individuality,  she  follows 
her  husband's  lead,  as  all  dutiful  wives  should. 

Nestlings. — Insectivorous  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  their 
diet;  are  fed  on  grasshoppers,  spiders,  caterpillars,  weevils, 
cabbage  worms,  white  grubs,  cutworms,  ants. 

Adults. — -Insectivorous  to  one-tenth  of  their  diet ;  eat 
the  same  insects  as  do  the  nestlings. 

In  their  relations  to  winged  ants,  and  the  termites, 
which  closely  resemble  winged  ants,  the  English  sparrow, 
aside  from  the  flickers,  the  downies  and  the  hairies,  is 
more  beneficial  than  are  most  other  birds.  The  writer 
came  across  a  stream  of  these  termites  going  up  the  side 
of  a  building  that  was  being  remodeled.  And  close  on 
them  was  a  flock  of  English  sparrows  picking  them  off 
with  the  utmost  haste  and  diligence.  Not  a  sound  was 
heard  from  the  little  birds  except  the  soft  whirring  of 
their  wings  when  temporarily  disturbed  by  the  passersby. 


PASSERES.  311 

This  occurred  on  a  main  thoroughfare  of  the  town;  but 
the  hungry  sparrows  returned  to  the  feast  again  and 
again,  ridding  the  place  of  scores  of  these  wood-boring 
pests. 

On  the  whole,  this  is  the  order  of  birds  most  beneficial 
to  man,  coming  closest  to  him  in  point  of  nervous  organ- 
ization, asking  most  of  him  in  the  way  of  protection,  and 
returning  most  to  him  in  service.  It  is  a  fact  running 
through  the  animal  kingdom,  all  the  way  up  from  the 
amoeba  to  the  most  highly  organized  race  of  the  human 
tribe,  that  the  animal  high  in  nervous  organization  has 
less  effective  means  of  defense  physically.  Hence  there 
should  exist  between  man  and  these  nervous  little  birds 
the  closest  sympathy  and  a  spirit  of  mutual  helpfulness. 
It  is  there,  on  the  part  of  the  passerine  birds;  and  if  man 
would  have  an  effective  ally  in  his  farming  and  crop- 
raising  generally,  not  to  speak  of  his  place  of  abode  being 
kept  comfortably  and  normally  free  from  noxious  pests 
of  many  kinds,  he  will  cultivate  in  himself,  if  it  is  not 
already  there,  a  feeling  of  dependence  upon  these  valuable 
servant-friends,  and  will  seek  to  protect  them  in  every 
way  possible.  A  bird's  life  is  not  to  be  taken  lightly;  it  is 
of  the  same  sort  as  yours,  with  the  germs  of  many  of  the 
same  high  sensibilities  as  you  yourself  possess. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 


The  Odd  Group  —  Altricial. 

This  is  a  group  of  birds  of  highly  diversified  forms. 
They  are  put  together  because  they  differ  from  all  other 
birds,  rather  than  because  they  resemble  each  other. 
The  order  includes  all  the  birds  below  the  Passeres,  down 
as  far  as  the  parrots  and  the  birds  of  prey.  The  distinc- 

tive characteristics  cannot  be 
stated  as  they  were  for  the 
Passeres,  because  the  birds 
have  no  characteristics  that 
are  common  to  all  of  them. 
The  order  includes  such  widely 
different  birds  as  the  wood- 
peckers, the  cuckoos,  the 
humming  birds,  and  the  night 
hawks. 

The 

modified 
plans  of 
hind  toe 


feet  are  variously 
to  serve  as  many 
food-getting.  The 
is  usually  smaller 
and  weaker  than  the  other 
toes,  and  cannot  be  apposed 
One  or  another  of  all  the  toes 
can  be  turned  in  a  direction  opposite  from  the  direction 
of  the  toes  in  the  passerine  foot,  and  in  various  members 
of  the  order  one  sees  these  various  positions  assumed 

312 


FIG.  109. — Syndactyle  foot  of  a 
picarian  bird. 

to  any  of  the  other  toes. 


PICARI.E. 


313 


by  the  toes.  The  claw  of  the  hind  toe  is  smaller  than  the 
claw  of  the  middle  toe;  at  least,  it  is  not  larger. 

The  wings,  endlessly  variable  in  form  in  the  different 
representatives,  agree  in  having  ten*  primaries,  of  which 
the  first  is  rarely  so  reduced  in  length  as  to  be  called 
spurious  or  even  very  short.  An  exception  to  this  point 
just  stated  occurs  in  the  division  of  the  woodpeckers, 
Pici,  where  there  are  but  nine  developed  primaries.  The 
greater  wing  coverts  are  at  least  half  as  long  as  the  quills 
that  they  cover.  The  number  of  rectrices  is  never  more 
than  ten,  occasionally  there  are  eight. 

The  bill  assumes  some  of  the  most  extraordinary 
shapes,  but  is  never  cered  or  hooked  nor  swollen  at  the 
nostrils.  The  food  habits  of  the  Picarise  are  as  various 
as  the  families  composing  the  order.  The  cuckoos  are 
insectivorous;  the  woodpeckers  are  almost  exclusively 
so,  although  the  red-headed  woodpecker  does  not  object 
to  a  fruit  dessert  after  digging  out  a  hundred  or  so  grubs. 
The  whip-poor-wills  are  insectivorous,  and  their  hunting 
begins  when  the  work  of  other  birds  ceases.  The  goat 
suckers  or  night  hawks,  the  swifts,  and  the  humming 
birds  are  also  insectivorous.  The  trogons  and  the 
toucans,  tropical  birds,  are  frugivorous,  or  fruit-eating. 
The  kingfishers  have  two  branches :  one  of  them  insectiv- 
orous, and  the  other  carnivorous,  that  is,  fish-eating.  (Fig. 
1 10.)  The  small  Texas  kingfisher  fishes  on  dry  land  for  the 
numerous  grasshoppers  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  grain 
fields.  The  kingfisher  nests  are  hollowed  out  in  the  steep, 
perhaps  rocky,  bank  of  some  canyon  or  stream  side.  The 
burrow  may  be  two  or  three  feet  deep  and  is  dug  out  by 
the  bird. 

Chapman  says  that  woodpeckers  are  found  every- 
where in  the  world  except  on  the  two  islands  of  Madagas- 


314  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

car  and  Australia.  They  are  surely  very  widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  United  States;  they  are  usually  colored  so 
that  they  are  easily  recognized,  and,  with  the  possible  ex- 
ception of  the  yellow-bellied  sapsucker,  should  be  care- 
fully protected.  Much  has  been  said  previously  of  the 


FIG.  no. — Belted  Kingfisher  (Galloway.}  Photographed  by  J.  W.  Folsom. 

beneficial  food  habits  of  the  numerous  tribe  of  woodpeckers ; 
but  too  much  cannot  be  said  to  impress  their  good  qualities 
on  the  mind  of  the  general  public.  The  downy  and  the 
hairy  woodpecker,  even  in  our  northern  latitudes,  stay 
with  us  all  winter,  and  work  the  year  round,  hunting 
borers  when  the  trees  are  not  frozen;  and  joining  the 
nuthatches  in  their  search  for  insect  eggs  in  bark  crevices 
and  out-of-the-way  places,  in  the  coldest  weather. 


PICARLE.  315 

The  humming  birds  are  likely  to  nest  together  in 
some  tree  or  bush  which  is  in  blossom;  woodpeckers  are 
rather  more  likely  to  nest  solitarily ;  and  once  in  a  while 
one  specially  quarrelsome  pair  will  dispossess  another 
weaker  pair  of  woodpeckers  and  appropriate  their  nest. 
The  cuckoos  of  the  New  World,  while  closely  related  to 
the  cuckoo  of  Europe,  have  not  the  reputation  for  laying 
their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  which  is  the  usual 
habit  of  the  European  bird,  and  only  a  very  exceptional 
thing  with  our  cuckoos.  This  lazy  habit  of  the  European 
cuckoo  seems  to  have  been  bequeathed  rather  to  our  cow- 
birds,  near  relatives  of  our  blackbirds.  Farther  south, 
along  the  Rio  Grande  river,  are  found  the  Savannah 
blackbirds  or  Anis,  and  in  Mexico,  the  groove-billed  ani; 
these  birds  look  like  a  very  slender  blackbird,  but  their 
bills  are  much  stouter.  The  groove-bill  has  the  black- 
bird-like habit  of  associating  in  flocks,  and  feeding  on 
cattle  ticks,  which  they  pick  off  the  cattle  while  the  cattle 
are  grazing.  The  Savannah  blackbirds  are  communistic 
in  their  nesting  habits;  several  birds  uniting  to  make  one 
nest  in  which  the  several  females  lay  their  eggs. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
PSITTACI. 

Parrot-like  Birds — Altricial. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  parrots,  the  lories,  the  ma- 
caws, and  the  cockatoos,  and  is  one  of  the  most  individ- 
ualized of  the  groups ;  that  is,  its  members  are  easily  recog- 
nizable. They  are  social  birds,  nesting  and  feeding  in 
companies.  The  Carolina  paroquet  was  in  earlier  times 
a  resident  of  the  Gulf  States  and  spread  northward  into 
the  states  of  the  lower  Mississippi,  and  has  been  found 
as  far  north  as  Kansas,  but  is  now  nearly  exterminated 
in  the  northern  part  of  its  old  range.  We  are  informed 
from  old  records  that  it  extended  as  far  north  as  the 
Ohio  river  in  1861.  Farther  back,  in  1780,  Barton 
recorded  the  fact  of  having  seen  a  flock  near  Albany,  New 
York. 

The  birds  of  the  order  have  highly  colored  plumage, 
and  most  of  the  representatives  show  strongly  contrasting 
colors.  (Fig.  in.)  The  toes  are  zygodactyle  by  the  turning 
backward  of  the  fourth  toe.  The  bill  is  stout,  short,  and 
more  or  less  hooked ;  and  at  its  base  a  growth  of  skin  covers 
the  horn  of  the  beak,  making  what  is  called  the  cere.  The 
tongue  is  thick,  fleshy,  and  somewhat  prehensile,  objects 
being  grasped  between  it  and  the  upper  mandible. 
The  upper  mandible  is  more  freely  movable  than  in  other 
birds,  being  jointed  to  the  front  bones  of  the  head  in- 
stead of  being  an  extension  of  them.  The  bill  is  freely 
used  in  climbing.  The  lower  larynx  is  peculiarly  con- 

316 


PSITTACI.  317 

structed,    being   provided    with    three    special    pairs    of 
muscles. 

As  to  their  food  habits,  the  birds  may  be  called  the 
frugivorous  raptores ;  and  in  some  respects,  they  resemble 
monkeys  among  mammals.  Parrots  abound  in  all  the 
tropical  countries.  But  the  Indian  and  the  Ethiopian 
regions  are  poor  in  parrots,  indeed  the  poorest;  while 


FIG.  in. — Zygodactyle  foot  of  a  parrot. 

the  Australasian  region  has  the  greatest  number  of  them 
and  perhaps  the  most  species.  The  parrots  which  are 
generally  put  on  sale  in  the  United  States  are  Mexican  or 
Cuban,  or  rarely  South  American  parrots.  In  their 
native  haunts,  they  cannot  talk,  but  are  as  silent  as  any 
wild  birds  may  be,  even  more  so,  for  their  few  notes  are 
shrill  or  harsh,  and  not  to  be  called  singing  in  any  degree; 
nor  do  they  give  a  hint  of  the  capacity  with  which  cultiva- 
tion may  endow  them. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
RAPTORES. 

Birds  of  Prey — Altricial. 

These  are  the  birds  of  prey,  and  comprise  the  eagles  > 
the  vultures,  the  hawks,  the  falcons,  the  kites,  the  buzzards • 
and  the  owls. 

The  young  are  downy  at  birth,  but  must  be  long  fed 
and  nourished  in  the  nest;  in  some  ways,  they  are  even 
more  helpless  than  are  some  of  the  passerine  birds.  The 
mother  eagle  has  often  a  harder  time  to  teach  her  eaglets 
to  fly  than  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  tiny  humming  bird 
mother;  occasionally,  the  eaglets  must  be  pushed  over 
the  side  of  the  nest  and  compelled  to  use  their  wings. 
In  the  typical  families,  the  structure  betokens  strength 
and  activity,  ferocity,  and  carnivorous  food  habits.  But 
in  the  smaller,  weaker  species  the  diet  is  mainly  insectiv- 
orous; other  species  feed  upon  reptiles  and  fish,  but 
the  majority  enjoy  a  flesh  diet  and  capture  their  prey  in 
open  warfare. 

The  wings  are  broad  and  ample,  and  the  coverts  are 
long  and  numerous,  covering  about  three-fourths  of  the 
folded  wing.  The  bill  is  cered  like  the  bill  of  the  parrots, 
but  the  feet  are  not  zygodactyle.  The  tail  is  variable  in 
form,  but  has  twelve  rectrices.  The  alimentary  canal 
varies  within  the  order  according  to  the  families.  Among 
the  owls,  the  alimentation  is  so  regulated  that  indigestible 
portions,  such  as  hide,  bones,  or  feathers,  are  formed  into 
pellets  in  the  stomach  and  disgorged  through  the  mouth. 

318 


RAPTORES.  319 

The  eagles,  falcons,  and  the  hawks  capture  their  prey 
on  the  wing  by  striking  it  with  their  enormously  developed 
talons,  the  most  deadly  weapons  possessed  by  any  birds, 
and  weapons  to  be  feared  by  man.  There  are  but  eight 
sorts  of  vultures  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and  only 
two  of  these,  the  black  and  the  turkey,  are  found  in  the 
United  States.  The  black  buzzard  is  sometimes  called  the 
carrion  crow.  The  turkey  buzzard  is  one  of  the  land 
scavengers,  and  one  of  the  few  birds  whose  services  are 
appreciated.  Its  life  is  protected  by  law  in  many  of  our 
states,  and  the  law  is  observed  without  protest;  possibly 
this  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  flesh  of  the  bird  is 
so  strong  and  ill-flavored  that  it  would  never  do  for  a 
game  bird.  If  the  laws  that  do  at  present  exist  on  the 
statute  books  of  the  various  states,  looking  toward  the 
partial  protection  of  our  game  and  insectivorous  birds, 
were  enforced,  crops  would  be  safer,  profits  would  be 
larger,  and  men  would  be  more  nearly  what  their  Creator 
intended  them  to  be. 

The  eagles  fall  into  two  groups:  those  eating  freshly 
killed  food,  and  those  whose  food  is  putrefying  flesh,  or 
prey  not  captured  in  open  flight.  The  first  are  called 
noble  birds  and  the  second,  ignoble.  Among  our  land 
birds,  the  eagles  have  remarkable  powers  of  flight.  Some 
of  the  buzzards  are  close  rivals,  seeming  to  mount  equally 
high,  and  perhaps  they  remain  longer  on  the  wing.  In 
South  America,  the  place  of  the  eagles  is  taken  by  the 
condors,  whose  natural  home  is  the  Andean  range. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
COLUMB.E. 

Dove-like  Birds — Altricial. 

The  essential  characteristic  of  this  order  is  the 
character  of  the  bill.  This  is  hard  and  horny  throughout, 
convex  at  the  tip,  and  a  little  constricted  a  short  distance 
back  of  the  tip.  At  the  base  of  the  bill,  there  is  a  mem- 
brane which  covers  the  nostrils,  and  which  is  soft  and 
elastic  while  the  bird  is  alive,  but  contracts  and  shrinks 
in  mounted  specimens.  As  one  looks  down  upon  the 
bill  from  above,  the  feathers  sweep  across  its  base  in  a 
softly  convex  line. 

The  toes  are  usually  not  webbed  at  base,  but  are 
in  some  specimens  slightly  connected  by  webbing.  The 
hind  toe  is  on  a  level  with  the  other  toes,  as  in  the  passerine 
foot,  and  the  tarsus  is,  in  most  of  the  birds,  shorter  than 
the  toes.  It  is  either  covered  in  front  with  scales  of 
regular  shape,  scutellate;  or  it  is  thickly  feathered,  or 
covered  by  irregularly  shaped  scales,  that  is,  reticulate. 
The  number  of  tail  feathers  is  twelve  or  fourteen. 

The  habits  of  the  birds  are  arboreal  or  tree  inhabiting ; 
though  there  are  some  ground  pigeons.  Most  of  the 
Columbse  are  grain-eaters,  and  some  of  them  are  closely 
related  to  the  grouse.  The  fruit  pigeons  belong  to  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  Australia,  and  the  Polynesian  group 
of  islands.  They  are  monogamous  in  their  domestic 
habits,  and  both  parents  seem  to  share  equally  in  the 
nest-building,  incubation,  and  care  of  the  young.  The 

320 


COLUMBvE.  321 

pigeons,  unlike  all  other  birds,  drink  much  as  human 
beings  do,  by  a  continuous  draught,  swallowing  mean- 
while, not  by  single  sips,  elevating  the  bill  after  each  sip, 
as  other  birds  do. 

As  to  the  members  of  this  order  outside  the  pigeons 
and  the  doves  which  are  common  to  the  United  States: 
in  Cuba,  there  is  the  blue-headed  pigeon,  terrestrial  not 
arboreal  in  its  habits.  The  Nicobar  pigeon  of  New 
Guinea  has  long,  plume-like  feathers  covering  the  body 
from  the  nape  backward  to  the  region  of  the  secondaries. 
The  Australian  pigeons  are  bronze-tailed,  spend  part  of 
their  time  in  trees,  and  part  of  it  on  the  ground.  The 
African  pigeons  are  more  brilliantly  colored  than  our 
American  pigeons,  combining  green,  black,  copper, 
purple,  and  red-brown  as  washes  or  solid  blotches  of  color. 
In  all  the  countries  where  the  columbine  birds  are  known, 
some  of  them  are  used  for  food. 

The  passenger  pigeon  is  known  in  most  countries. 
It  is  like  the  gypsies  among  the  human  tribes,  here, 
there,  and  everywhere.  It  looks  more  like  our  mourning 
dove  than  it  does  like  our  domestic  pigeon,  though  it  is 
larger  than  the  mourning  dove  and  more  brilliantly 
colored.  Formerly  it  was  very  abundant  in  the  United 
States.  Their  foraging  for  food  became  a  serious  matter; 
and  their  nesting-places  became  a  nuisance  because  of  the 
immense  flocks  with  their  disturbing  noises  and  their 
displacing  of  other  more  valuable  birds.  A  bounty  was 
placed  upon  them ;  and  under  its  provisions  their  numbers 
steadily  decreased  until  now  they  are  rare  in  any  locality. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 
GALLING. 

Game  birds — Praecocial. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  true  fowls,  the  quails,  the 
grouse,  the  guinea  fowls,  the  domestic  hens  and  turkeys, 
the  pheasants,  the  curassows,  and  the  guans;  the  two 
last-named  not  being  known  in  the  United  States. 
Mexico  and  the  Rio  Grande  country  are  the  home  of  the 
guans. 

The  order  shades  into  the  ground  doves  of  the 
Columbae  on  the  one  hand,  and  into  the  plovers  of  the 
Limicolae,  on  the  other  hand.  Some  of  the  gallinaceous 
birds  of  the  Old  World  are  very  unlike  typical  gallinaceous 
birds.  Hence  it  must  appear  that  the  order  embraces 
birds  that  are  far  apart  as  to  outward  appearance,  but 
are  closely  related  structurally. 

These  are  birds  that  for  the  most  part  have  not  been 
able  to  endure  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold;  hence 
their  migrations  have  not  been  such  that  they  are  found 
far  north  or  far  south  of  a  given  parallel;  nor  have  their 
most  extensive  migrations  been  north  and  south,  but 
rather  east  and  west.  They  are  also  birds  that  have  been 
closely  connected  with  the  encroachments  of  man  upon 
new  and  unsettled  territory ;  as  he  has  advanced  into  new 
country,  these  birds  have  receded  before  him.  The 
prairie  chicken  is  a  bird  which  has  suffered  in  this  respect. 
In  northeastern  and  eastern  United  States,  it  was  formerly 
abundant;  but  is  now  exceedingly  rare,  having  been 

322 


GALLING.  323 

driven  westward  to  the  plains  regions,  where  the  game 
season,  during  which  it  may  be  shot,  is  now  carefully 
regulated  by  law.  According  to  the  game  law  of  1908, 
the  time  limits  within  which  the  prairie  chicken  may  be 
legally  hunted  are  from  September  15  to  October  15; 
for  bob- whites,  the  limits  are  between  November  15 
and  December  15.  In  addition,  restrictions  are  imposed 
as  to  the  number  of  birds  which  may  be  killed  by  any 
one  hunter,  and  as  to  the  purpose  in  killing  them.  Private 
property  owners  may  prohibit  all  hunting  on  their 
premises;  which  prohibitions,  by  the  way,  are  the  most 
effective  game  laws  possible.  The  migrating  quails  of 
the  Old  World  make  migrations  across  the  Mediterranean 
to  nest  in  the  European  countries,  returning  as  winter 
approaches.  The  Australian  quails  of  the  genus  Synoicus 
measure  from  six  and  one-half  to  eight  inches  in  length. 
These  are  the  smallest  of  the  quail  tribe,  and  make  only 
short  migrations,  keeping  in  large  coveys.  The  birds 
of  the  order  are  all  terrestrial  birds  rather  than  arboreal, 
like  most  of  the  Raptores.  They  seek  their  food  on  the 
ground,  seeds  and  berries,  and  therefore  are  not  driven 
to  migration  for  food  as  are  most  of  the  birds  that  are 
insectivorous  in  their  food  habits.  As  with  all  birds 
notably  seed-eaters,  food  is  usually  a  matter  of  all-the- 
year-round  supply  in  any  one  locality  with  these  birds; 
and  hence  they  have,  in  many  cases,  followed  the  grain- 
raising  farmer  as  he  has  settled  in  new  localities,  thus 
following  the  westward  tide  of  immigration. 

As  to  characteristics,  the  hind  toe  is  elevated,  except 
in  some  of  the  Old  World  species;  the  front  toes  are 
commonly  a  little  webbed;  the  claws  are  blunt  and  not 
much  curved;  the  tarsus  is,  in  most  of  the  birds,  broadly 
scutellate  when  not  feathered.  The  bill  is  short,  stout, 


324  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

and  convex,  and  not  constricted  anywhere  from  base  to 
tip.  In  the  region  of  the  nasal  fossae,  where  the  nostrils 
open  upon  the  upper  mandible,  the  bill  is  usually  soft, 
but  elsewhere  it  is  horny. 

All  the  birds  of  the  order  are  social  as  to  their  own 
kind.  Some  birds  associate  because  of  the  food  supply; 
but  these  gallinaceous  birds  have  the  gregarious  habit, 
gathering  in  flocks  because  of  common  tendencies  and 
needs;  and  seeming  to  satisfy  their  desire  by  being  in 
company  with  others  of  their  kind.  The  domestic  birds 
of  the  order  are  good  illustrations  of  these  facts.  There 
seems  to  exist  a  considerable  degree  of  domesticity,  or 
house  and  home  interest,  such  as  we  ourselves  possess; 
the  manifest  desire  to  live  with  one's  own  kind.  Even 
the  occasional  hen  that  "steals  her  nest,"  associates  with 
her  kind  except  during  the  time  she  is  sitting.  And  so 
far  as  the  latter  fact  is  concerned,  it  may  be  said  that  at 
this  season  isolation  is  the  typical  condition  for  all 
animals,  and  especially  so  for  the  higher  forms  of  life. 

The  young  of  gallinaceous  birds  are  all  praecocial 
with  a  generous  covering  of  down  at  birth,  and  soon  are 
able  to  find  their  own  food;  though  the  brood  stays  with 
the  mother  for  shelter  and  safety,  just  as  the  young  of  the 
hen  and  the  turkey  are  sheltered  and  instructed  by  their 
mothers.  Most  of  the  birds  of  the  order  are  polygamous, 
the  bob- whites  forming  an  exception  to  this  rule. 
Throughout  most  of  the  order  the  irresponsibility  of  the 
male  in  the  care  of  the  young  is  evident;  but  to  this  also 
the  bob- whites  form  an  exception. 

Among  the  bob-whites,  the  male  bird  even  assists 
in  covering  the  eggs  during  the  three  weeks,  usually 
twenty-three  days,  of  incubation.  When  the  mother 
bird  is  on  the  nest,  the  male  usually  does  sentinel  duty, 


GALLING.  325 

when  he  is  not  hunting  his  breakfast,  dinner,  and  supper. 
When  the  young  are  hatched,  if  the  family  is  disturbed 
the  male  usually  flies  or  runs  away  from  the  place,  taking 
care  to  remain  some  time  in  sight ;  while  the  mother  bird, 
having  given  the  danger  signal  to  her  nestlings,  flutters 
off  in  the  opposite  direction,  almost  under  the  feet  of  the 
pursuer,  feigning  lameness,  yet  striving  to  lead  the 
disturber  farther  and  farther  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
helpless  nestlings.  She  will  eventually  run  or  fly  to 
cover;  and  the  disturber  of  her  peace  will  be  left  without 
trace  or  wing  rustle  to  reveal  the  whereabouts  of  the  birds 
so  lately  visible. 

Experiments  were  made  by  some  of  the  early  investi- 
gators, and  have  been  repeated  by  some  later  ones,  testing 
the  intimacy  of  relationship,  both  in  reversion  and 
adaptation,  existing  between  bob-whites  and  domestic 
chickens.  Bob-whites'  eggs  were  placed  under  a  domestic 
hen,  and  a  bob- white  was  given  a  sitting  of  domestic 
hens'  eggs.  Both  mothers  hatched  their  broods  success- 
fully. The  chickens  of  the  bob- white  mother  ran  about 
as  young  bob-whites  do;  their  calls  were  those  of  the 
domestic  chicken,  but  the  timidity  and  response  to  danger 
signals,  squatting  and  staying  quiet  until  again  sum- 
moned, were  clearly  bob- white-like.  Indeed  it  looked 
very  much  as  if  the  domestic  chickens  were  not  so  far 
removed  after  all  from  the  behavior  of  their  wild  ancestors 
before  man  came  among  them. 

In  the  other  case,  it  may  be  first  said  that  young 
bob-whites  are  usually  readily  tamed;  and  these  young 
birds  yielded  without  difficulty  to  the  hen  mother,  went 
abroad  by  themselves  for  food,  and  came  at  her  call. 
The  hen  was  confined  in  the  coop,  so  as  not  to  be  able 
to  lead  nor  to  be  led  away.  The  young  bob-whites 


326  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

remained  with  their  strange  mother  until  they  were 
nearly  grown,  sleeping  under  her  wings  nights;  at  this 
time,  they  came  as  usual  at  her  twilight  call,  instead 
of  going  into  the  coop,  they  squatted  down,  bob- white 
fashion,  in  a  circle,  tails  toward  the  center,  in  front  of 
the  coop.  Soon  after,  the  "call  of  the  wild"  overcame 
the  teaching  of  the  hen  mother,  and  off  they  went,  to 
return  no  more. 

The  wild  turkey,  ancestor  of  all  the  domestic  turkeys, 
is  now  a  rare  bird  in  any  locality  in  North  America.  It 
has  been,  hunted  so  persistently  that  it  is  nearly  exter- 
minated. It  is  not  much  of  a  credit  to  the  human  race, 
that  many  animals  smaller  than  man  can  hope  to  maintain 
their  existence  only  by  migrating  to  regions  where  man 
cannot  follow  them. 

The  plumage  colors  of  the  gallinaceous  birds  are  such 
that  they  usually  are  safer  in  hiding  than  they  are  in 
flight.  Many  of  the  birds  are  ground  birds,  but  even 
those  frequenting  trees  are  equally  effectively  concealed 
by  their  mottled  plumage.  All  the  members  of  the 
order  are  somewhat  omnivorous,  able  to  subsist  on 
seeds,  but  securing,  whenever  possible,  insects  and  green 
•vegetation;  and  some  also  relish  an  occasional  meal  of 
flesh.  Who  has  not  seen  a  domestic  hen's  evident  relish 
of  the  flesh  of  a  mouse  or  a  mole  which  some  fortunate 
chance  had  put  in  her  way? 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 


Shore  Birds  —  Praecocial. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  snipes,  the  plovers,  the 
phalaropes,  the  sandpipers,  the  woodcocks,  and  the 
curlews.  The  birds  are,  on  the  whole,  rather  shy,  small 
in  size,  and  the  body  is  rounded  or  depressed.  They  are 
ground  birds,  living  in  open  places  by  the  water's  edge. 
The  head  is  completely  feathered  and  the  plumage  is  of 
nearly  uniform  coloration,  at  least  not  with  decided 
contrasts  of  colors.  The  primaries  are  graduated  in 
length  from  the  first  to  the  tenth;  the  secondaries  also 
are  of  uneven  length,  lengthening  from  the  outside  inward; 
this  makes  the  wing  show  two  decided  points  when  the 
bird  is  flying.  The  tail  is,  in  most  of  the  birds,  quite 
short,  and  has  from  twelve  —  the  usual  number  —  up  to 
twenty-six  rectrices. 

The  legs  are,  in  some  of  the  birds,  enormously 
lengthened,  are  short  in  only  a  few  genera,  and  are  usually 
quite  slender.  The  hind  toe  is,  in  all  the  birds,  short  ;  and 
in  some  of  them  it  is  absent  altogether.  (Fig.  112.)  The 
bill  of  the  different  birds  varies  in  length  and  shape  ;  but  in 
nearly  all  of  them  it  is  slender  and  contracted  from  the 
front  of  the  head;  it  is  usually  as  long  as  the  head,  and 
in  some  of  the  representatives  it  is  much  longer  than 
the  head.  For  most  of  its  length  the  bill  is  covered  with 
a  softish  skin;  and  in  one  or  two  of  the  different  families 

327 


328 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


of   birds  it  is  soft  and  sensitive  to  the  very  tip,  being 
provided  with  nerves  and  bloodvessels. 

This  sensitiveness  of  the  bill  reaches  its  extreme 
development  among  birds  as  a  whole,  in  the  woodcock 
of  the  Limicolae.  Here  the  upper  mandible  is  soft  and 
flexible,  cartilaginous  rather  than  horny,  and  may  be 
moved  upon  the  lower  mandible  up,  down,  around,  and 

sidewise,  with  motions  surpris- 
ing  in  their  freedom.  When 
one  has  had  the  rare  privilege 
of  watching  one  of  these  sober- 
visaged,  grandfatherly  birds 
about  his  hourly  task  of  digging 
worms,  he  will  understand  the 
meaning  of  this.  The  bird 
buries  its  bill  up  to  the  head  in 

fae    SQft    mud>    and   cannot   USe 

any  other  sense  than  that  of 
contact  for  knowing  when  it  reaches  the  worm  ;  sight  is 
impossible  under  the  circumstances.  This  seems  true  for 
others  of  the  Limicolae.  The  snipes,  the  sandpipers, 
and  some  of  the  plovers  are  guided  less  by  the  sense  of 
sight  in  finding  their  food  than  are  the  birds  of  most 
other  orders;  and  their  bills  are  less  horny,  more  carti- 
laginous, and  better  fitted  structurally  to  serve  as  sensory 
organs.  This  characteristic  of  finding  their  food  by 
contact  as  well  as  by  sight,  is  shared  by  the  duck  tribe, 
who  spoon  up  much  of  their  food  from  the  pond  or  the 
river  bed,  taking  their  food  "unsight,  unseen."  In 
the  division  to  which  the  snipes  and  the  woodcocks 
belong,  the  eyes  are  set  so  far  back  as  to  be  just  over  the 
ear  openings.  The  plovers  have  the  eye  more  nearly 
in  a  median  position. 


FIG. 


.—  Semi-palmatedfootof 


LIMICOL^E.  329 

As  the  name  of  the  order  indicates — limus,  mud; 
colere,  to  inhabit  or  dwell — these  birds  are  mud-dwellers, 
ground-feeders,  and  therefore  they  all,  that  is  the  North 
American  sorts,  build  their  nests  on  the  ground.  With 
the  birds  that  nest  near  the  sea  margin,  the  nest  may  be 
simply  a  depression  in  the  beach  and,  possibly,  formed 
by  the  foot  and  body  movements  of  the  bird  preparatory 
to  the  depositing  of  the  eggs.  The  birds  that  nest  along 
the  inland  water  courses  bestow  a  little  more  care  on  their 
nests;  they  are  still  hollows  in  the  ground,  generally 
pretty  well  concealed  by  being  placed  at  the  foot  of  a 
tree  or  some  grass  clump.  Most  of  the  birds  line  these 
rude  nests  with  grasses,  dead  leaves,  and  mosses,  some- 
times loosely  laid  in,  sometimes  with  intent  of  weaving. 
The  familiar  little  spotted  sandpiper  may  actually  con- 
struct a  nest,  roughly  weave  it,  out  of  hay  and  mosses. 
The  green  sandpiper,  properly  an  Old  World  bird,  has 
been  noted  only  twice  on  the  Western  Hemisphere;  this 
is  the  only  one  of  the  North  American  Limicolae  known 
to  nest  in  trees ;  where  it  has  been  found,  this  bird  nested 
in  trees,  in  old  nests  previously  used,  and  presumably 
nests  of  other  birds. 

The  long-billed  curlews  and  Bartram's  sandpipers 
build  their  nests  on  the  prairies  at  the  foot  of  grassy 
hummocks  or  clumps,  often  far  from  water;  while  the 
other  shore  birds  are  true  to  the  typical  traits  of  the 
order,  and  nest  along  rivers,  streams,  and  ponds. 

The  food  of  the  limicolan  birds  consists  of  insects, 
worms,  snails,  and  other  soft-bodied  animals  picked  up 
from  the  ground  surface  or  probed  for  in  the  soft  mud 
along  the  ponds  or  rivers. 

Chapman  records  the  woodcocks,  the  phalaropes, 
many  of  the  plovers  and  sandpipers,  and  the  jack  curlew 


330  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

as  nesting  freely  in  the  eastern  states.  Avocets,  wood- 
cocks, Bartram's  sandpipers,  the  little  spotted  sand- 
piper— a  bird  of  very  common  occurrence  everywhere — 
long-billed  curlews,  killdeers,  and  the  mountain  plovers 
nest  as  far  south  as  Kansas  in  the  Missouri  valley,  and 
from  there  breed  northward  through  the  northwestern 
states  into  northern  latitudes  as  far  as  Labrador  and 
Nova  Scotia. 

These  birds  of  the  sea- shore  and  the  inland  water 
courses  winter  from  our  northern  states  southward  into 
Mexico,  some  of  them  going  as  far  as  Brazil.  The 
phalaropes,  sea  plovers  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
winter  to  the  south  of  our  shores  in  southern  Atlantic 
or  Gulf  waters,  preferring  to  spend  the  time  of  their 
winter  sojourn  on  islands  rather  than  on  the  continent 
shores. 

Like  all  birds  not  resident  in  any  given  locality,  the 
migratory  Limicolae  visit  the  states  in  our  middle  latitudes 
twice  a  year,  once  in  May,  when  they  go  to  their  breeding- 
grounds  north,  and  again  in  August  or  September,  when 
the  cold  weather  of  the  North  drives  them  south  to  their 
winter  homes. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
HERODIONES. 

Herons  and  Storks — Altricial  Birds. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  herons,  the  storks,  the  ibises, 
and  the  bitterns.  Many  of  them  are  birds  of  large  size, 
among  the  tallest  of  birds  that  have  a  keeled  breast-bone. 
The  neck  is  in  most  of  the  birds  bent  in  U- shape.  A  part, 
sometimes  all,  of  the  head  may  be  naked,  and  in  some 
of  the  species  a  part  of  the  neck  is  bare  also.  The  toes 
of  the  birds  are,  for  the  most  part,  long  and  slender  and 
are  never  fully  webbed.  The  bill  is  long  and  slender  in 
comparison  with  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  is  wedge-shaped 
with  cutting  edges.  It  is  always  longer  than  the  head. 
The  tail  of  the  birds  of  the  order  has  twelve  rectrices. 

The  Herodiones  are  all  of  them  more  or  less  depend- 
ent upon  water  courses  for  food,  shelter,  and  nesting  needs ; 
hence  they  are  to  be  found  along  the  inland  lakes  and 
rivers.  Most  of  the  birds  are  shy,  fearful  of  man,  and  so 
seek  those  water  courses  that  are  heavily  fringed  with 
trees  and  undergrowth,  whose  turns  and  secluded  wind- 
ings furnish  the  degree  of  retirement  that  renders  them 
comfortable. 

The  young  are  hatched  naked  and  helpless,  and  are 
fed  and  cared  for  in  the  nest.  The  food  of -the  adults 
consists  of  fish,  reptiles,  or  other  soft,  small  animals,  as 
snails  and  aquatic  worms,  which  the  bird  spears  as  it 
stands  in  wait,  or  as  it  stalks  stealthily  along  through  the 
grasses  and  reeds  of  swamp  or  wooded  water  course. 


332  FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 

Most  of  the  herons  are  sociable  birds,  nesting  and 
feeding  in  large  companies.  In  the  United  States  their 
breeding-grounds  range  from  Florida  through  Louisiana, 
South  Carolina,  and  Texas.  They  nest  also  in  the  West 
Indies.  Herons  are  peculiar  in  that  they  choose  to  perch 
and  nest  in  trees,  in  spite  of  their  long  legs  and  neck, 
and  feet  adapted  for  walking.  The  night  heron  builds 
its  nest  in  trees  sometimes  as  high  as  thirty  feet  from  the 
ground.  The  green  heron,  or  fly-up- the-creek  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  will  sometimes  manifest  enough  socia- 
bility toward  the  human  family  to  build  its  nest  in  some 
orchard  tree  not  too  far  from  its  water  haunts.  The 
herons  seem  always  hungry;  they  have  two  interesting 
peculiarities — patient,  motionless  watchfulness  for  some- 
thing to  eat,  and  an  insatiable  appetite;  and  the  two  fit 
well  together. 

The  bitterns  are  solitary  rather  than  sociable  birds, 
preferring  to  hunt  and  fly  alone;  even  the  birds  when 
paired,  prefer  to  nest  apart  from  their  own  kind,  and  not 
in  company  with  any  other  birds.  Herons  and  egrets 
often  nest  in  one  immense  family,  but  not  so  the  bitterns. 
Some  of  the  bitterns  place  their  nests  in  water  grasses 
or  rushes,  some  in  bushes  or  trees,  but  always  seek 
concealment. 

The  American  egret  ranges  from  Florida  to  Patagonia. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  at  the  same  time  one 
of  the  most  harmless  of  birds.  For  food,  it  asks  nothing 
except  such  fishes  and  snails  as  the  swampy  marshes  and 
lakes  of  its  haunts  may  afford.  And  yet  it  has  been  one 
of  the  most  persecuted  of  birds.  During  the  nesting 
season,  the  male  bird  puts  on  an  exquisite  growth  of  long 
white  plumes  covering  its  slender  body  from  nape  to  tail 
tip  and  is  often  hunted  to  the  death  for  the  sake  of  these 


HERODIONES.  333 

plumes.  The  home-making  instincts  and  the  instincts 
for  the  rearing  of  young  are  among  the  finest  instinct: 
of  which  the  tribes  of  animals  are  capable;  and  yet  the 
beautiful  outward  expression  of  these  instincts  in  the 
egret  have  proved  its  death  warrant;  it  must  give  up  its 
life,  its  mate,  its  young,  to  adorn  someone's  head.  This 
is  worse  than  the  Indian  brave  who  makes  his  war  head- 
dress of  eagles'  feathers;  his  cruelty  is  to  be  excused  on  the 
ground  of  his  being  a  savage. 

The  white-faced  glossy  ibis  winters  from  Mexico 
on  southward,  and  in  company  with  egrets  and  herons 
breeds  in  our  Southwest,  from  Texas  and  the  Rio  Grande 
country  on  through  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  All  these 
birds,  in  spite  of  their  long  legs  and  necks,  have  extensive 
powers  of  flight.  On  the  wing  their  long  legs  trail  out 
behind  them,  balancing  the  weight  of  the  head  in  front. 

The  storks  are  natives  of  the  Old  World.  The  Jabiru, 
or  American  stork,  native  to  Central  and  South  America, 
is  said  to  have  the  same  habits  as  the  European  stork. 
The  Maribou  stork  of  Africa,  the  carrion-eating  stork  of 
the  Deccan,  the  black  and  green  and  purple  stork  of  China, 
are  among  the  Old-World  storks.  The  fish-,  frog-,  and 
snake-eating  storks  of  Africa  are  famous  in  song  and 
story.  The  maguari  stork  is  found  in  Argentina.  Thus 
it  seems  that  the  storks  of  the  order  are  quite  well  dis- 
tributed in  the  countries  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
ALECTORIDES. 

Swamp  Birds.     (Paludicolae  of  some  Systematists.) 
Praecocial  Birds. 

This  order  is  otherwise  called  the  Paludicolas — from 
palus,  swamp;  and  colere,  to  inhabit.  It  includes  cranes, 
rails,  gallinules,  and  coots.  The  birds  of  the  order  fall 
into  two  types,  the  crane  type  and  the  rail  type.  The 
first  resemble  the  herons  more  than  they  do  the  birds 
of  their  own  order;  and  the  second,  while  they  are  very 
unlike  the  cranes  in  body  contour,  show  by  their  structure 
that  they  are  closely  related  to  them. 

The  cranes  are  all  large  birds  with  extremely  long 
legs  and  necks,  and  short  tails.  The  head  is  partly 
naked.  The  bill  equals  or  exceeds  the  head  in  length,  is 
straight,  slender,  wedge-shaped,  and  strong,  and  is 
contracted  opposite  the  nostrils.  The  nostrils  are  near 
the  middle  of  the  bill  and  are  broadly  open.  The  tibiae 
are  naked  for  an  unusual  distance,  and  the  toes  are  short 
in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  bird  and  its  legs. 

Cranes  are  found  everywhere  except  in  Polynesia 
and  South  America.  North  America  has  two  of  the  few 
species,  Australia  has  one,  Africa  has  four,  and  Asia  the 
others.  They  are  gregarious,  gathering  in  large  flocks. 
The  cranes  living  in  the  northern  hemisphere  migrate 
northward  at  the  breeding  season.  The  young  of  the 
cranes  are  praecocial.  The  nests  are  rude  affairs,  raised 

334 


ALECTORIDES.  335 

only  a  few  inches  above  the  bog  surface.     The  eggs  are 
few  in  number,  two  or  three,  with  rough,  warty  shells. 

The  birds  of  the  rail  type  are  small,  or  of  medium 
size,  have  compressed  bodies,  and  their  heads  are  com- 
pletely feathered.  The  body  is  so  much  compressed  as 
to  appear  wedge-shaped  when  viewed  from  the  front; 
this  is  of  extreme  advantage  to  the  birds  when  threading 
their  way  through  the  thick  matted  grasses  of  the  swamps 
which  they  inhabit  in  search  of  food,  or  in  flight  from 
some  enemy.  The  thin  body  itself  seems  to  part  the 
reeds  and  grasses,  propelled  forward  by  the  strong  legs. 
The  phrase,  "as  thin  as  a  rail,"  is  not  always  given  its 
proper  relationship  to  these  thin- bodied  birds. 

The  necks  and  legs  of  the  rails  are  not  unusually 
long,  but  the  toes  are  extremely  long,  and  this  fact 
makes  it  easy  for  the  birds  to  run  over  the  surface  of 
the  wet,  oozy  ground  of  their  marshes.  The  birds  are 
shy  and  retiring,  and  have  a  way  of  skulking  along 
among  the  reeds  and  rushes  where  they  hunt  their  prey. 
The  king  rail,  the  largest  of  his  kind,  has  a  rather  comical 
way  of  stepping  loftily  along,  lifting  his  short  legs  with 
their  enormous  toes  very  high  and  bobbing  his  short  tail 
jerkily  at  every  step.  When  the  rails  are  pursued  they 
seek  safety  first  by  running  or  hiding,  and  when  really 
flushed  they  rise  feebly  and  vaguely  at  first.  An  observer 
of  them  at  this  time  would  hardly  think  that  they  could 
make  the  long  flights  that  they  do  make  every  year,  and 
for  which  they  are  famous.  Their  cries  are  loud  and 
harsh,  and  they  scream  piteously  when  they  are  caught. 

The  food  of  the  cranes  consists  of  frogs,  snakes,  lizards, 
and  field  mice.  Rails  eat  crabs,  snails  and  other  small 
mollusks,  also  grubs,  worms,  and  insects,  as  well  as  the 
seeds  and  tender  shoots  of  plants. 


336 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


The  eggs  of  the  rails  are  many  in  number  and  are 
placed  in  nests  built  of  reeds  and  rushes,  sticks  and 
grasses,  placed  upon  the  ground.  Their  young  are 
generally  black-downy  at  birth,  no  matter  what  the  adult 
color  may  be. 

The  cranes  as  a  family,  breed  in  the  north,  some  of 
them  going  as  far  as  Manitoba  and  the  Alaska  country; 

they  winter  in  Mexico 
and  the  Gulf  States. 
Rails  and  gallinules  and 
coots  are  more  varied  in 
their  range,  some  of  the 
rails  migrating  as  far 
north  as  Labrador  to 
raise  their  -young/  Coots 
may  go  even  into  Green- 
land, though  they  are 
much  more  nearly  aqua- 
tic in  their  habits  than 
are  the  rails;  their  feet 
reveal  this  fact.  (Fig. 
113.)  Coots  also  breed 
in  the  southern  and  middle  part  of  their  range,  which  ex- 
tends from  Alaska  to  southern  Mexico.  The  gallinules 
have  a  more  southern  range  on  the  whole,  breeding 
as  far  north  as  Massachusetts,  spreading  inland  to  the 
Mississippi,  and  going  south  to  the  Gulf  States  and 
well  down  into  Mexico. 


FIG.  113. — Lobate  foot  of  a  coot. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 
LAMELLIROSTRES. 

Duck-like  and  Geese-like  birds— Praecocial  Birds. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  swans,  the  flamingoes,  the 
ducks,  and  the  geese.  The  bill  of  all  the  New- World 
ducks  and  geese  is  lamellate  with  a  membranous  covering, 
at  least  the  greater  part  of  the  bill  has  such  a  covering; 
the  edges  of  the  bill  are  denticulate  in  the  grass-eaters 
and  sharp-toothed  in  the  fish-eating  sorts.  The  feet 
are  palmate,  three  of  the  toes  being  joined  by  webbings; 
the  hind  toe  is  elevated,  rarely  absent.  The  wings  are  of 
medium  size  and  spread,  and  the  tail  is,  in  most  of  the 
birds,  short  and  many- feathered.  The  legs  are  near 
the  center  of  equilibrium,  and  the  body  is  held  nearly 
or  quite  horizontal  in  walking.  The  young  of  all  the 
birds  are  praecocial,  and  many  of  the  birds  are  polyg- 
amous, though  this  is  true  of  the  domestic  sorts  much 
more  than  of  the  wild  birds. 

Of  these  birds,  the  ducks  are  world- wide  in  distri- 
bution, and  they  naturally  fall  into  five  sub-orders :  the 
Mergansers  or  fish  ducks;  the  pond  or  river  ducks;  the 
bay  or  sea  ducks;  the  geese;  and  the  swans.  These 
differences  are  based  upon  structural  characteristics 
quite  as  much  as  upon  the  places  of  habitation ;  but  these 
structural  differences  are  rather  the  apparent  reasons  for 
the  birds'  choice  of  these  haunts ;  the  lines  are  not  hard  and 
fast,  however,  for  there  are  some  sorts  of  all  the  kinds 

22  337 


338  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

that  may  be  found  occasionally  out  of  their  natural 
haunts. 

Taking  the  order  as  a  whole,  the  diet  is  vegetable 
rather  than  animal;  the  ducks  that  are  notably  flesh- 
eaters,  eat  also  the  sea  weeds  of  the  coast  regions,  and 
the  mergansers  on  our  inland  lakes  do  not  despise  water 
plants  as  a  variation  of  their  fish  diet.  The  fresh- water 
ducks  and  also  the  flamingoes  eat  water  plants  freely. 
The  bill,  in  both  river  and  bay  ducks,  has  a  series  of 
gutters  on  either  side  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  upper 
mandible,  which  serve  as  strainers.  Both  secure  their 
food  by  dabbling  up  from  the  pond  or  river  bottom 
small  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  seeds  of  water  plants 
along  with  the  mud ;  and  the  mud  they  get  rid  of  by  forc- 
ing it  along  with  the  water,  out  of  the  mouth  through 
these  strainers.  Geese  are  more  terrestrial  in  habits 
than  are  the  ducks,  and  often  visit  land  to  procure  grass, 
corn,  or  other  grains.  Among  the  ducks,  the  sexes  are 
usually  of  quite  different  plumage;  among  the  geese  the 
differences  are  less  noticeable,  while  the  sexes  are  alike 
in  the  swans.  Among  the  flamingoes,  the  immature 
birds  are  white,  while  the  older  birds  only  have  the 
characteristic  plumage.  The  American  red  flamingo 
inhabits  Cuba  and  the  Bahamas,  and  is  seen  on  the 
Florida  Keys  rarely.  Its  adult  plumage  is  scarlet,  with 
the  primaries  and  the  secondaries  of  the  wings  black. 

The  swans  have  extremely  long  necks,  are  more  at 
home  on  the  water  than  on  the  land;  they  inhabit  tem- 
perate regions  both  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States, 
breeding  from  there  northward  and  wintering  from  our 
southern  border  on  south  into  Mexico.  But  two  sorts 
are  known  in  the  United  States,  the  whistling  and  the 
trumpeter  swan.  The  whistler  is  the  smaller  of  these 


LAMELLIROSTRES.  339 

two,  measuring  less  than  five  feet  in  length;  it  breeds  in 
the  Arctic  regions  and  winters  much  further  south. 
The  trumpeter  nests  in  some  parts  of  our  northern  border 
states,  as  Dakota,  and  from  there  northward.  The 
nests  of  the  whistler  are  ready-made  grassy  depressions; 
but  the  trumpeter  constructs  a  nest  out  of  feathers  and 
down,  intermingled  with  hay.  Both  these  huge  birds 
are  seen  in  the  Mississippi  valley  as  they  fly  to  and  from 
their  nesting  grounds. 

The  Lamellirostres  are  migratory  birds,  as  a.  whole, 
with  the  exceptions  of  the  domestic  chickens  and  geese 
and  turkeys;  and  this  is  a  case  where  man  has  been 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  an  artificial  condition. 
Cases  are  on  record  where  some  of  these  migratory  wild 
birds  have  been  detained  in  captivity  till  they  have  been 
induced  to  breed  there;  the  young  birds  have  appeared 
contented  until  some  band  of  their  wild  relatives  has 
appeared  on  the  scene,  and  then  the  captive  birds  mani- 
fested their  desire  to  be  out  and  away.  But  the  remote 
generations  of  these  birds,  reared  year  after  year,  have 
finally  seemed  to  lose  the  wild  instinct. 

The  flight  of  the  wild  ducks  and  geese  is  the  most 
characteristic  thing  in  the  spring  and  fall  skies,  with 
their  regular  V-shaped  formations,  shifting  and  changing 
to  suit  the  layers  of  air  through  which  they  are  flying, 
but  never  losing  the  characteristic  form.  So  regular 
are  their  habits  of  migration  that  they  have  become 
weather  prophets  of  no  mean  order.  After  a  hard 
winter,  everyone  will  remember  the  first  thrill  of  spring  at 
the  sound  of  the  honk,  honk,  overhead. 

The  eider,  which  .is  decidedly  a  bird  of  the  high 
latitudes,  is  valued  for  the  down  with  which  the  mother 
lines  her  nest;  it  is  plucked  from  her  own  bre.ast,  and  the 


340  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

plucking  of  it  goes  on  as  the  incubation  progresses;  if 
need  be,  the  male  bird  contributes  to  the  downy  covering 
of  the  six  to  ten  precious  eggs.  In  the  northern  countries 
of  Europe,  Norway,  Iceland,  and  Lapland,  the  inhabitants 
make  the  down  a  considerable  article  of  commerce;  and 
this  is  an  illustration  of  the  possible  enhancement  of  the 
value  of  a  bird  by  the  kindly  treatment  of  it.  In  all 
the  countries  where  the  eider  down  industry  is  carried 
on,  the  eiders  are  protected  by  law  from  being  hunted  or 
disturbed  in  any  way.  As  a  natural  consequence,  they 
have  grown  to  be  almost  tame,  nesting  in  large  companies 
and  occupying  almost  every  available  space;  and  the 
birds  will  permit  the  approach  of  man  with  very  little 
protesting.  The  taking  of  the  down  from  the  nests  is 
always  done  kindly,  and  the  bird  has  learned  not  to  fear 
greatly. 

Mr.  Beebe,  in  his  journeys  through  the  marshes 
round  about  Guadalajara,  speaks  of  the  notable  difference 
in  the  behavior  of  the  myriad  birds  startled  by  the  hoof- 
beats  of  his  horse  from  the  lake  surface  to  fly  a  short 
distance  and  then  return  quietly  to  the  feeding-grounds; 
and  the  surprised,  terror-stricken  flight  of  a  flock  of 
mallards  or  teal  from  among  the  decoys  of  some  northern 
lake.  It  has  been  said  that  the  home-making  instincts 
are  among  the  finer  instincts  which  animals  possess;  and 
it  is  to  these  very  instincts  among  the  wild  birds  that  the 
usual  trap  methods  of  the  modern  hunter  appeal.  The 
wooden  decoys  placed  among  the  reedy  washes  of  the 
lake,  on  the  migratory  track  of  these  wild  birds,  are  gaily 
painted  semblances  of  these  birds  in  nuptial  plumage. 
Migrations  occur  at  the  time  when  life  for  the  wild  fowl  is 
at  its  fullest  tide;  and  at  that  time,  home  and  a  nestful 
of  young  are  all  the  wild  bird  cares  to  live  for. 


LAMELLIROSTRES.  341 

The  migrations  of  these  birds,  as  a  whole,  cover  the 
entire  American  continent  from  Greenland  to  the  Argen- 
tine country.  Some  species  are  truly  Arctic;  some 
species  are  migratory  from  south  to  north;  and  two  of 
the  tree  ducks  live  chiefly  within  the  tropics.  The 
last-named  species  are  found  from  Texas  and  the  Rio 


FIG.  114. — Wood  Duck  (Galloway}.     Photographed  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Folsom. 

Grande  country  southward  during  the  spring  and  summer. 
They  nest  in  trees;  this  is  an  unusual  habit  with  the 
birds  of  this  order.  The  buffle-head  builds  its  nest  in 
trees;  the  foxes  are  fond  of  the  flesh  on  its  plump  little 
body;  hence  the  bird  tries  to  protect  itself  by  nesting  in 
stumps  or  trees.  The  widgeon  or  baldpate  builds  often 
far  from  water  on  the  grassy  upland.  The  American 
merganser,  or  fish  duck,  nests  in  some  hole  in  a  tree  or  in  a 


342  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

hollow  which  it  makes  in  some  cliff  side.  The  wood  duck 
chooses  some  old  nest  built  by  an  owl,  a  woodpecker,  or  a 
squirrel;  or  it  may  build  its  own  nest  but  never  on  the 
ground,  nor  necessarily  near  the  water.  And  part  of  the 
duties  of  the  mother  duck  is  to  see  that  the  ducklings 
reach  water,  carrying  them  in  her  bill  as  far  as  it  may  be 
necessary.  (Fig.  114.)  Her  mate,  who  has  been  very  de- 
voted up  to  this  time,  will  not ' '  raise  a  finger  "  to  help ;  only 
when  the  fat  little  ducklings  are  fairly  launched  for  their 
first  swim,  does  he  appear,  and  even  then  his  chief  aim 
seems  to  be  to  look  handsome.  He  remains  on  guard, 
however,  during  the  whole  period  of  incubation,  not 
feeding  the  sitting  bird,  indeed,  but  doing  sentinel  duty, 
warning  of  danger,  and  singing  to  her  in  duck  language, 
often  and  long  at  a  time. 

The  mallard  is  the  ancestor  of  our  common  domestic 
duck ;  and  in  the  wild  state,  the  mallards  are  monogamous ; 
it  is  believed  that  the  birds  pair  for  life.  In  their  southern 
haunts  during  our  winter,  the  birds  go  in  pairs,  and 
assemble  in  pairs  at  the  feeding-grounds.  But  with 
domestication,  and  the  easier,  sheltered  life,  came  the 
degeneracy  of  polygamy;  hence  in  our  poultry- yards, 
we  see  the  flocks  of  ducks. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 
STEGANOPODES. 

Totipalmate  Sea  Birds — Altricial  Birds. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  gannets,  the  pelicans,  the 
cormorants,  the  darters,  and  the  frigate  birds.  Of  the 
order,  only  the  cormorants  and  the  pelicans  occur  with 
enough  frequency  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States 
to  merit  discussion  here.  In  1880,  a  frigate  bird  was 
captured  in  central  Kansas,  but  this  was  a  straggler  from 
some  band  which  may  have  come  a  little  way  inland  from 
Gulf  waters,  and  by  storms  or  some  strange  chance,  have 
been  drawn  out  of  its  course.  Perhaps  this  shows  us 
how  the  entrance  of  birds  into  new  regions  is  begun. 
The  frigate  birds  are,  so  far  as  we  know  them  to-day, 
strictly  maritime  .birds.  This  is  in  the  same  line  with 
the  surprise  which  one  of  the  groove-billed  anis  of  the 
Rio  Grande  country  and  Mexico  gave  Kansas  in  the 
spring  of  1902,  when  it  appeared,  half  starved  and  cer- 
tainly lost,  in  a  hay  field,  where  it  fell  exhausted. 

This  is  the  only  order  of  birds  in  which  the  feet  are 
totipalmate;  that  is,  all  four  of  the  toes  are  joined  by  a 
webbing.  To  make  this  possible,  the  hind  toe  is  turned  a 
little  to  one  side.  (Fig.  115.)  The  legs  are  set  even  farther 
back  than  the  legs  of  the  Lamellirostres,  which  fact  makes 
the  birds  even  more  ungainly  on  the  land.  All  of  the  birds 
have  a  gular  pouch,  and  with  the  pelicans  this  is  used 
as  a  dip  net  to  catch  fishes.  The  brown  pelicans  swoop 
down  from  on  the  wing  to  catch  the  fish;  but  the  white 
pelicans  swim  along  with  their  curious  fish  basket  held 

343 


344 


FIELD    ZOOLOGY. 


with  its  edge  just  below  the  water  surface  and  filling  with 
fish  as  the  birds  push  through  the  water.  In  both  cases, 
after  the  birds  have  caught  the  fish,  they  lift  the  head, 
contract  the  gular  pouch,  letting  the  water  run  out  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth,  throw  up  the  fish  so  as  to  let  it  drop 
back  tail  first  down  the  throat.  (Fig.  1 1 6.)  Their  young  are 


,  FIG.  115. — Totipalmate  foot  of  a  pelican. 

fed  on  the  same  diet,  only  the  fish  are  smaller.  Pelicans  can 
be  kept  in  confinement,  and  take  to  it  not  unkindly;  but 
they  must  be  provided  with  fish,  and  this  would  not  be 
an  unwelcome  task  provided  it  came  in  the  spring-time 
and  the  attendant  were  a  small  boy.  The  tongue  of  the 
pelicans  is  extremely  small,  a  mere  knob  of  a  tongue  as  in 
the  kingfishers. 

All  of  the  Steganopodes,  although  some  of  them  are 
extremely  large,  are  especially  light  on  the  wing.     The 


STEGANOPODES. 


345 


frigate  birds  are  perhaps  unsurpassed  in  their  command 
of  the  wings  in  flight,  although  the  albatrosses  and  the 


FIG.  116. — Pelican  (Galloway).     Photographed  by  J.  W.  Folsom. 

petrels  excel  them  in  the  ability  to  stay  away  from 
land  for  a  longer  time.  Frigate  birds  are  frequently  seen 
hundreds  of  miles  out  to  sea.  This  lightness  of  wing  is 
attained  by  the  extraordinary  system  of  air  tubes  under- 


346  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

neath  the  skin,  and  the  unusually  large  air  cavities  in  the 
long  bones  of  the  wings  and  the  legs ;  these  are  hollow  for 
their  entire  length,  being  solid  only  at  the  ends  where 
they  enlarge  to  provide  for  attachment  of  muscles.  If 
one  presses  the  skin  of  a  pelican  in  the  pectoral  or  the 
ventral  region,  there  is  heard  a  crackling  sound  as  the  air 
is  driven  in  and  out  of  these  enormously  developed 
pneumatic  reinforcements  of  the  respiratory  system. 

The  young  of  the  order  are  altricial ;  the  eggs  are  very 
few,  in  most  species  of  the  birds  only  one,  plain  colored 
and  coated  with  a  chalky- white  substance.  North 
America  has  ten  species  of  cormorants,  four  of  which 
nest  within  the  United  States;  the  Florida  and  the 
Mexican  nesting  in  Florida  and  the  Rio  Grande  country, 
respectively.  Of  the  other  two,  the  white  crested  and 
the  common,  the  former  nests  in  the  northwest,  Oregon; 
and  the  latter  in  the  marshes  of  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and 
some  of  the  inland  lakes.  Pelicans  build  nests  on  the 
ground  or  in  low  bushes,  cormorants  on  rock  ledges  or  in 
crevices  of  some  rocky  cliff,  or  in  bushes;  frigate  birds 
in  low,  thick  bushes  by  the  water's  edge.  The  nests  of 
the  last  are  made  of  sea  weeds,  mud,  small  stones,  sticks, 
bark,  and  grasses,  usually  placed  on  the  ground  by  the 
water's  edge  or  on  islands.  The  white  pelican  spends  its 
winters  in  our  southern  states  along  the  Atlantic,  in  the 
Gulf  states,  and  in  Mexico. 

The  cormorants  are  social  birds,  often  nesting  in 
immense  colonies,  their  nesting  grounds  are  exceedingly 
offensive,  owing  to  their  uncleanly  habits  in  using  excre- 
mentitious  matter  for  a  partial  covering  for  the  eggs. 
The  decomposition  of  this  matter  serves  to  raise  the  nest 
temperature  sufficiently  high  for  incubation  while  the 
bird  is  away  from  home. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 


LONGIPENNES. 

Long -winged  Swimmers — Altricial. 

These  are  the  long- winged  swimmers;  gulls,  terns, 
petrels,  and  albatrosses,  the  wings,  in  many  of  the  birds, 
reaching  far  back  of  the  tip  of  the  tail.     The  hind  toe  is 
elevated,  very  small,  or  absent,  according  to  the  repre- 
sentative   bird   of   the   order 
under  examination,  but  there 
are  but  two  webbings.     (Fig. 
117.)     These  are  all  sea  birds, 
excellent       swimmers,       and 
equally  skillful  on  the  wing. 
Gulls    are    often  seen  inland 
as  well  as  along  the  sea-coast 
though  most  species  are  truly 
marine  or  nearly  so.      Their 
distribution   is  nearly  world- 
wide.    As  to  their  habits,  gulls 
may  be  classed  as  oceanic,  or 
inland    lake    or    river    gulls. 
Bonaparte's    gull,    migrating,    FlG  II7._paimate  foot  of  a  tern, 
may    be    found    in    localities 

reaching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific ;  though  it 
usually  nests  north  of  our  northern  boundary.  Franklin's 
gull  is  inclined  to  nest  inland.  The  inland  water  gulls, 
wintering,  as  many  of  them  do,  in  Mexico,  in  coming 
north  to  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  or  to  Manitoba  for 
the  nesting  season,  have  been  led,  at  least  a  few  of  them, 

347 


348  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

to  try  a  home  in  the  interior  states,  and  so  may  occasion- 
ally be  found  nesting  as  far  from  large  water  bodies  as 
in  Iowa  and  Kansas,  the  smaller  lakes  and  ponds  supply- 
ing their  needs. 

Terns,  as  a  rule,  nest  on  the  fringing  islands  and  in 
the  marshes  and  lagoons  from  Greenland  to  Mexico, 
according  to  the  species.  The  common  tern,  sometimes 
called  the  summer  gull  and  the  sea  swallow,  nests  along 
many  of  the  northern  inland  lakes  as  well  as  along  the 
coasts.  The  ocean  terns  seldom  fly  far  from  land,  and 
usually  hollow  out  a  depression  in  the  sand  for  their 
nests.  The  petrels  nest  on  the  island-fringed  coast  of 
Maine,  and  from  there  northward.  They  come  from 
their  southern  winter  quarters  in  May.  The  nest  may  be 
a  burrow  in  the  sand  or  under  a  rock.  These  birds  are 
small;  they  are  often  called  sea  swallows.  During  the 
incubating  season,  one  bird  sits  on  the  nest  during  the 
day  while  the  other  bird  is  away  feeding;  during  the 
night,  it  is  thought  the  order  is  reversed. 

The  food  of  gulls  consists  of  fish,  young  birds. that 
may  have  died,  the  flesh  of  seals  when  it  is  obtainable, 
whale  blubber,  sea  urchins,  crabs,  rabbits,  and  the  eggs  of 
cormorants,  murres,  and  other  sea  birds.  The  ocean 
gulls  fly  far  from  land,  and  their  long  continued  flight 
without  return  to  land  reminds  one  of  the  flight  of  the 
dragon  flies  over  the  surface  of  their  miniature  ocean. 
These  are  the  birds  that  follow  outgoing  ships,  and  are 
rewarded  by  many  a  meal  of  refuse  thrown  overboard 
from  the  ship's  galley.  They  are  largely  fish-eaters,  but 
are  also  effective  scavengers  of  the  ocean.  They  have 
various  nesting  habits,  building  their  nests  of  grass  or 
sticks,  sometimes  placing  it  in  trees,  sometimes  on 
stumps,  and  even  on  the  ground. 


LONGIPENNES.  349 

And  these  are  also  birds  that,  along  with  many  other 
birds  of  beautiful  plumage,  are  persecuted  because  of 
their  fatal  beauty.  Recently  there  appeared  in  the 
New  York  Tribune,  this,  which  ought  to  live  in  the 
memory  of  every  child,  and  ought  to  arrest  the  attention 
of  everyone:  "The  smaller  gulls  and  sea  swallows  are 
shot  for  their  wings,  and  the  fowlers,  in  their  haste,  do  not 
stop  to  kill  any  wounded  birds;  they  merely  wrench  off 
the  wings,  and  throw  the  wounded  birds  back  into  the 
water  to  die  in  agony.  'And,'  says  an  eye  witness,  'when 
wounded  birds  are  being  torn  asunder,  they  cry  and 
scream  like  a  child.'"  And  this  is  at  the  demand  of 
woman,  at  once  the  tenderest  and  the  cruel est  of  God's 
created  beings! 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 
PYGOPODES. 

Diving  Birds — Praecocial  and  Altricial  Birds. 

This  is  the  order  of  the  loons,  the  grebes,  the  auks, 
and  the  puffins.  The  first  two  are  birds  well  known  in  the 
United  States;  the  auks  are  arctic  birds,  and  the  puffins 
are  mainly  so,  although  the  common  puffin  nests  along 
our  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine  northward,  and  the  tufted 
puffin  on  our  Pacific  coast  islands  from  Behring  Sea 
down  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  San  Francisco.  These 
birds  have  the  most  highly  developed  natatorial  powers 
in  the  whole  range  of  birds.  The  grebes  swim  and  dive 
with  perfect  ease,  and  are  also  very  skillful  on  the  wing, 
though  they  do  not  use  the  wings  in  swimming,  this, 
according  to  the  observation  of  careful  investigators, 
being  done  with  the  feet.  The  legs  of  all  the  birds  of 
the  order  are  set  so  far  back  that  the  birds,  when  on 
land,  stand  with  the  body  nearly  upright ;  the  whole  tarsus 
may  then  rest  on  the  ground  and  the  tail  may  be  used  for 
a  prop. 

All  the  different  sorts  of  puffins  are  shy  birds  nesting 
on  islands  in  almost  inaccessible  crevices  in  cliffs,  except 
the  common  puffin,  which  nests  on  the  ground.  But 
even  in  the  latter  case,  the  ground  burrows  are  usually 
located  on  some  lonely  island  or  little-frequented  shore 
where  flying  is  the  surest  method  of  travel.  The  auks 
are  both  coast  and  island  nesting  as  to  their  habits;  and, 
since  their  inclinations  lead  them  to  frequent  lonely 

350 


PYGOPODES.  351 

islands  and  rock-bound  coasts  accessible  only  in  the  face 
of  great  difficulty,  they  are  not  always  so  fearful  of  man 
as  they  should  be  for  their  own  safety.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  razor-billed  auk,  the  birds  of  this  family  are  all 
inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  continental  coasts  and  islands. 
The  razor- billed  auk  nests  on  the  Labrador  coast,  and 
on  the  North  Atlantic  and  Polar  sea  islands.  The  Great 
Auk  is  one  of  the  birds  that  has  disappeared  from  the 
face  of  the  earth  within  the  memory  of  men  now  living, 
and  its  disappearance  has  been  due  to  the  fact  of  the 
diminutive  wings.  The  shortness  of  its  wings  must  have 
been  a  decided  disadvantage  to  the  birds  in  the  case 
of  combats  with  enemies  among  their  bird  neighbors, 
as  well  as  a  serious  handicap  in  case  of  an  attack  made  by 
man.  During  storms,  also,  the  inability  to  use  the 
wings  must  have  resulted  in  the  death  of  many  of  the 
birds.  All  the  living  auks  have  wings,  and  indications 
show  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Great  Auk  had  useful 
wings;  hence  it  is  supposed  that  this  bird  lost  the  use 
of  its  wings  through  generations  of  disuse.  The  length  of 
this  bird  was  nearly  three  feet,  thirty  inches,  and  the 
length  of  its  wing  was  just  six  inches,  a  wing-spread 
totally  incapable  of  supporting  the  body  of  the  bird  free 
from  the  earth.  This  is  the  heavy  penalty  which  nature 
always  imposes.  The  Bible  puts  it — "He  that  will  not 
work  shall  not  eat";  and  this  law  runs  through  the  whole 
kingdom  of  life — a  power  unused  becomes  finally  impos- 
sible. Among  the  body  members,  an  organ  unused 
degenerates  in  structure  till  it  is  incapable  of  fulfilling  its 
function.  This  is  one  of  the  most  serious  lessons  that 
the  living  being  has  to  learn. 

The  loons  are  all  northern  birds,  though  the  yellow- 
billed  loon,  the  largest  of  them  all,  is  the  only  one  that 


352  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 


may  be  called  strictly  arctic.  The  great  northern  diver 
is  the  most  common  loon  in  the  United  States.  It  nests 
m  the  states  along  our  northern  border  on  islands  in  the 
lakes  and  rivers.  The  parallel  of  forty-two  degrees  was 
Jrmerly  spoken  of  as  its  southern  breeding  limit,  but  of 
later  years  it  has  been  found  considerably  south  of  this 
line.  Not  only  is  it  found  in  the  Adirondack  region  in 
Mjchigan,  and  in  Maine,  but  it  also  comes  as  far  south  as 
Nebraska. 

The  birds  of  the  order  are  all  excellent  swimmers  but 
the  loons  and  the  grebes  excel  the  others.     A  loon  is  so 
nearly  instantaneous  in  its  response  to  a  stimulus  that  a 
bullet  fired  at  hunter's  range  strikes  the  water  after  the 
bird  has  left  the  spot  where  the  bullet  enters  the  water 
This  expertness  is  shared  by  all  the  grebes,  and  as  they 
sink  below  the  water  surface,  hardly  a  ripple  is  left  to  tell 
where  they  sank.     Both  loons  and  grebes  are  capable 
swimming  extraordinary  distances  under  water      The 
plumage  of  the  birds  is  kept  well  oiled,  and  the  oil  naturally 
at  the  base  of  the  feathers  is  so  abundant  that  no  amount 
of  diving  or  swimming  under  water  can  unfit  the  birds 
for  a  further  plunge. 

The  grebes  are  much  more  generally  distributed 
over  the  continent  than  are  any  other  birds  of  the  order 
The  western  grebe  ranges  over  the  whole  western  part 
of  the  United  States  from  the  Rio  Grande  country  on 
the  south  to  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  breeding  in 
many  of  the  inland  lakes  and  streams.  The  pied-billed 
grebe,  which  has  a  black  band  around  its  bill  midway  of 
its  yellowish-gray  length,  is  another  grebe  of  very  wide 
distribution.  It  ranges  from  the  provinces  of  British 
America  to  Chili  and  the  Argentine  country,  spreading 
Atlantic-wise  to  the  West  Indies  and  the  Bermudas 


PYGOPODES.  353 

The  horned  and  the  American  eared  grebe  are  a  little 
more  restricted  in  their  range,  being  more  western  and 
less  southern;  the  eared  grebe  coming  no  further  south 
than  Texas,  and  from  there  into  British  America;  while 
the  Horned  Grebe  comes  no  further  south  than  along  our 
northern  boundary,  with  occasionally  a  visitor  wandering 
down  into  northwestern  Illinois.  The  western  grebe,  the 
pied-bill,  and  the  dab  chick — smallest  of  our  grebes — 
spend  the  winter  far  to  the  south  of  their  nesting  grounds, 
many  of  them  wintering  on  Mexican  waters,  where  they 
enjoy  much  more  freedom  from  their  enemies  than  can 
be  found  in  the  United  States. 

These  grebes,  especially  the  western,  which  is  the 
largest  of  its  tribe,  are  among  the  birds  whose  fatal  endow- 
ment is  beauty,  many  of  them  being  killed  annually  for  the 
beautiful  silky  plumage  of  the  breast.  Men  who  make 
it  their  business  to  kill  these  birds,  make  swift,  s  cruel 
work  of  it.  The  body  is  not  cold  before  the  warm  skin 
with  its  silky  feathers  is  stripped  from  the  breast  which 
may  have  so  lately  covered  a  nestful  of  eggs  or  tender 
young. 

Ever  since  man  came  among  the  animals  of  the  earth, 
he  has  been  the  greatest  agent  of  slaughter  of  the  whole 
list.  In  his  early  days,  he,  of  course,  had  to  contend  for 
the  mastery  with  animals  much  stronger  than  himself— 
it  was  kill  or  be  killed  then,  and  no  one  of  us  could  have 
blamed  him  then.  But  in  these  days  he  has  so  far 
forgotten  his  old  bravery  and  honor  of  bearing  himself 
among  his  kind,  as  to  pursue  to  the  death  only  the  animals 
smaller  and  weaker  than  himself.  The  sportsman  who 
cracks  away  at  wooden  pigeons  to  test  his  skill  is  the 
better  man  of  the  two. 

The  nest  of  the  grebes  is  simply  a  mass  of  decaying 

23 


354  FIELD   ZOOLOGY. 

vegetation,  pulled  up  from  the  river  bottom,  and  fastened 
like  a  tiny  raft  to  the  stems  of  reeds  and  rushes  in  shallow 
water.  Upon  leaving  the  nest  in  the  morning,  the 
mother  grebe  has  the  curious  habit  of  pulling  up  from 
the  bottom  of  the  nest  some  of  the  grasses  and  decaying 
leaves  to  cover  the  eggs.  During  the  day,  the  warmth 
of  the  sun's  heat  on  the  wet  weeds  serves  to  keep  the 
eggs  warm  until  the  close  of  day.  When  surprised,  the 
mother  bird  slips  off  the  nest  leaving  the  eggs  unpro- 
tected. She  simply  hides  and  seems  to  make  no  effort  to 
defend  her  home.  The  food  of  the  whole  order  is  mainly 
fish.  The  young  loons  and  the  grebes  are  praecocial,  and 
early  have  somewhat  the  same  skill  as  the  adults  in 
diving  and  swimming.  The  auks  and  the  puffins  are 
altricial,  and  anyone  who  has  tried  to  enter  a  puffin's 
nest  knows  that  the  puffin  is  well  able  to  defend  her  nest 
from  all  intruders. 

This  is  the  lowest  order  of  birds;  that  is,  these  birds 
are  farthest  removed  from  the  passerine  birds  as  regards 
nervous  organization,  functional  excellence  in  many  lines 
instead  of  one  line,  and  in  closeness  of  relationship  to 
man,  both  physiologically  and  economically.  All  these 
characteristics  the  passerine  birds  possess  in  the  highest 
degree,  and  the  Pygopodes  in  the  lowest  degree.  It  is 
also  true  that  these  birds  come  nearest  to  suggesting 
reptilian  characteristics.  Hesperornis,  the  early  Cre- 
tacean  bird  of  the  United  States,  had  the  general  build 
of  the  loons  of  this  order.  This  shows  the  continuity  of 
the  processes  by  which  the  Creator  has  brought  gradually 
into  existence  the  different  types  of  bird  life,  from  the 
ancient  Archaeopteryx,  more  like  reptile  than  bird; 
through  Hesperornis,  loon  in  build  but  incapable  of 
flying ;  Ichthyornis  with  some  features  of  the  modern  bird  ; 


PYGOPODES.  355 

to  the  earliest  bird  suggesting  the  passerine  type;  until 
to-day  we  have  the  birds  of  the  present  age,  with  such 
differently  developed  characteristics  as  to  warrant  our 
grouping  them  in  the  thirteen  orders — Pygopodes,  or 
diving  birds;  Steganopodes,  or  fully- web-footed  birds; 
Lamellirostres,  or  duck-like  birds;  Longipennes,  or  long- 
winged  swimmers;  Alectorides,  swamp  and  marsh  birds; 
Herodiones,  heron-like  birds;  Limicolae,  shore  birds; 
Gallinse,  game  birds ;  Columbae,  doves  and  their  relatives ; 
Rap  tores,  birds  of  prey ;  Picarian  birds ;  and  the  Passeres, 
crown  and  consummation  of  development  among  the 
tribes  of  birds. 


INDEX. 


Abdomen,  3 
Acarina,  234 
Alectorides,  334 
Alimentation: 

birds,  301 

insects,  24 
Altricial  birds,  281 
Ametamorphosis,  33,  40 
Anis,  315,  343 
Anopheles,  193,  197,  201 
Ant  lion,  225 
Ants,  164 

artificial  nest,  143 

feeding  habits,  165 

forming  of  community,  165 

honey-gathering,  166 

individuals    in    community, 

165 

industries,  166 

life  duration,  168 

mother  of  community,   165 

nests,  140 

sense  of  smell,  i  56 

study  of,  140 
Aphis  lion,  221,  222 
Aptera,  43 

Arthropoda,  231,  238,  252 
Arachnida,  238 
Assassin  bug,  117 
Auk,  the  great,  351 

the  razor-billed,  351 
Aves,  2,  252 

Back-swimmer,  99,  112 

Baldpate,  341 

Baltimore  oriole,  74,  137,  259, 

293 

Bark  lice,  118 
Barn  swallows,  97,  256 
Bats,  200 
Bee  flies,  201,  204 
Bee  jelly,  160 
Bees  and  water,  164 
Bees,  bumble,  143,  161 


Bees,  honey,  155 

colony  founding,  i  57 

feeding  of  larvae,  157 

royal  larvas,  160 

sense  powers,  155 

study  of,  139 

swarming,  160 

significance  of,  162 
Beetles,  67 

habitats,  59,  60,  62,  67 
Beneficial  flies,  188 
Bembecidae,  169 
Bill  of  a  bird,  262 
Biology  defined,  i 
Birds,  252 

affection  among,  282 

alimentation,  301 

ancient,  253 

choice  of  a  mate,  273 

classification  as  to  residence, 
278 

economic  value  of,  255,  259, 
278,  287 

encouragement    of,     73,  .  74, 
278,  294 

feeding  of  young,  288 

migrations,  274 

nervous  system,  296 

nest-making,  284 

notions  of  cleanliness,  285 

physical  features,  262 

relationships,  253 

respiration,  300 
Birds  of  prey,  318 
Bitterns,  331,  332 
Blackbirds,  74,  97,  137,  256,  284, 

289,  291 
Blister  beetles,  69,  77 

metamorphosis,  77 
Bluebirds,  97,  137,  256 
Blue  jays,  74,  97,  137,  257,  284 
Bobolink,  277 
Bobwhites,  74,  97,  115,  118,  281, 

324,  325  (see  Quails) 
Book  lice,  44 


357 


358 


INDEX. 


Borers,  59 

bird  enemies,  74 
Bot  flies,  184,  1 88 
Box  elder  bug,  40 
Brain,  lobes  of,  296 

biological  significance  of,  3 1 

296 

Brown  creeper,  118,  257,  294 
Brown  thrasher,  289 
Bufflehead,  341 
Bugs,  107 

Bumble  bee,  143,  161 
Butcher  bird,  97,  309 
Buzzards,  319 


Cabbage  worm,  101,  109,  137 
Caddis  flies,  45,  221 
Calico  back,  101,  118 
Camponotidae,  166 
Carpenter  ant,  165 
Carpet  beetles,  73 
Carrion  beetles,  60,  69 
Carrion  crow,  319 
Carrion  flies,  178 
Catbird,  137,  256,  289 
Caterpillar  musculation,  38 
Caterpillars,  120,  132,  137,  257 
Centipeds,  2,  232 
Checker  beetles,  69 
Chickadee,  118,  137,  293 
Chinch  bug,  113 

bird  enemies,  115,  118 

disease  of,  115 

development  of,  114 

history  of,  113 

natural  enemies,  114 

range,  113 
Chippy,  137 
Chitin,  5 
Chordata,  3 
Cicada,  102,  118,  170 
Cicada  killer,  170 
Circulation  of  blood, 

birds,  303 

insects,  23 
Clamatores,  308 
Classification  of  insects,  42 
Clear- winged  moths,  125 
Click  beetles : 

bird  enemies,  74 
Cockroach  tiger,  238 
Codling  moth,  7  i 
Coelenterata,  2 


Coleoptera,  43,  67 

characteristics,  65 

life  history,  77 

mouth-parts,  76 

value  of  the  order,  68 
Coloration  of  birds,  271 
Color  sense: 

bees,  1 1 

flies,  1 1 

Collecting  boxes,  53 
Collection  box,  55 
Columbas,  320 

Complete  metamorphosis,  33,  39 
Cooper's  hawk,  291 
Cormorants,  285,  343,  348 
Corrodentia,  44 
Cosmopolitan,  the,  138 
Crabs,  238,  348 
Cranes,  118,  334,  336 
Crayfish,  238 

Cricket-like  grasshoppers,  90 
Crickets,  81 

bird  enemies,  97 
Crow,  97,  137,  259 
Crustaceans,  2,  238 
Crystalline  lens  of  eye,  8 
Cuckoos,  74,  97,  137,  256,  315 

289,  313 
Cucumber  beetle : 

bird  enemies,  74 
Culex,  193,  197,  198,  201 
Curculios,  71 
Curlew,  327,  329 
Cuticle,  5 
Cutworm,  70,  73,  137,  290,  293 


Daddy  longlegs,  235 

Darters,  343 

Damsel  bug,  113 

Damsel  flies,  207 

Dermal  light  sense,  10 

Dermestidae,  7 

Development,  32,  281 

Digger  wasp,  168,  171 

Dipnet,  50 

Diptera,  183 

characteristics,  181 
compound  eyes,  186 
divisions  of,  187 
feeding  habits,  178,  184 
metamorphosis,  186 

Diving  beetles,  63,  69 

Diving  birds,  350 


INDEX. 


359 


Dobsons,  223,  224 
Doves: 

domestic,  320 

mourning,  321 
Downy    woodpecker,     74,     118, 

257»  294 
Dragon  flies,  200,  207,  209 

characteristics,  207 

development,  209,  211 

distribution,  212 

feeding  habits,  208 

nymph,  211 

sight,  208 

life  duration,  211 
Drone  bees,  156,  159,  161,  163 
Ducks,  337 

domestic,  97,  338,  342 

wild,  339,  340,  341 
Dung  beetles,  69 


Eagles,  318,  319 
Ear: 

bird,  299 

locust,  17,  1 8 

mosquito,  18 
Earwigs,  44 
Echinodermata,  2 
Egg,  insect,  32 
Egret,  332 

hunting  of,  332 
Eider  duch,  339 
Electric  light  bug,  1 1 2 
Elm  -leaf  beetle : 

bird  enemies,  73 

life  history,  73 
Elytra,  67 
English    sparrow,    74,    137,    284, 

290,  310 
Entomology,  42 
Ephemerida,  2 1 3 

characteristics,  213 

immature  respiration,  213 

metamorphosis,  214 

reasons  for  persistence,  213 
Eriocephalas,  129 
Eumenida?,  174 
Euplexoptera,  44 
Eye: 

compound,  7 

development  of,  9,  10 

lack  of,  7 

number  of  facets,  7 

of  bird,  297 


Eye: 


of  grasshopper,  6 
simple,  9,  10 


False  rear  horses,  225 
Feet  of  birds,  264 
Filed  work : 

bees,  ants,  wasps,  139 

beetles,  59 
'butterflies,  119 

birds,  249 

flies,  176 

grasshoppers,  79 

bugs,  98 

insects  in  general,  46 
Fireflies,  63,  69 
Fish  duck,  337 
Fishes,  2,  200,  260,  296 
Fleas,  226 
Flickers,  74,  294 
Flies,  183 

setting  for  collection,  179 
Flower  beetle,  62,  69,  76 
Flower  bug,  114,  116 
Flower  fly,  178,  201,  202 
Flycatchers,  257 
Flying  spiders,  243 
Food  of  nestling  birds,  287 
Fowls,  domestic,  74,  97,  342 
Frenatae,  130 
Frigate  bird,  343 
Function  of  accommodation: 

in  birds,  297 


Gall  flies,  149,  153,  154,  234 
Gall-forming  insects,  234 
Gallinae,  322 

characteristics,  323 
Galls,  153,  155,  234 
Gannets,  343 
Geese,  wild,  337,  339 
Giant  waterbug,  100 
Gnats,  184,  188,  257 
Golden-eye,  222 
Goldfish,  200 
Goshawk,  258,  291 
Grasshopper,  3,  87 

bird  enemies,  97 

insect  enemies,  82,  201 
Grass  stem  flies,  192 
Grebes,  264,  350 

hunting  of,  3  53 


36° 


INDEX. 


Grebes,  nests,  3  53 

range,  352 
Grosbeaks,  292 
Ground  beetles,  69,  71 
Grubs,  73 

bird  enemies,  74 
Gulls,  347,  348 
Gypsy  moth,  70,  137 

Hairy  woodpecker,  74,   118, '257, 

2  94 

Halteres,  184 
Hand  lens,  51 

Handmaid  moth,  larva,   134 
Harmful  flies,  188,  204 
Harvestmen,  235 
Hawks,  258 

marsh,  137,  164,  258,  292 
night,  97,  313 
red-tail,  137,  258,  292 
sparrow,  97,  258,  291 
Hearing : 

birds,  299 
insects,  17 
Heart : 

insects,  23 
Hemiptera,  107 

beak  of,  99,  108 
beneficial,  109,  112,  114,117 
characteristics,  105 
development,  109 
divisions  of  order,  107 
food  habits,  108,  109 
harmful  sorts,  1 1 8 
setting  for  collection,  104 
Hepialidae,  129 
Herodiones,  331 
Herons,  332 
Hesperornis,  254,  354 
Hessian  fly,  191 

development,  191 
measures  against,  192 
natural  enemies,  192 
Hippelates,  192 
Homing  instinct,  n,  13,  139, 

Honey,  157 
Honey  ants,  166 
Honeybees,  155 
House  fly,  188,  190 

measures  against,  190 

metamorphosis,  190 
House  wren,  97,  118,  137 


Horse  fly,  184,  188 
Humming  bird,  312,  315 
Hunter,  the  Fiery,  70 
Hypermetamorphosis,  34 
Hymenoptera,  43,  149 

characteristics,  147 

subordination  of  males,  1 554 
168,  173 

metamorphosis,  i  54 

mouth-parts,  153 

ovipositor,  154 

sense  powers,  156 

wing  action,  152 

Ibis,  white-faced  glossy,  333 
Ichneumon  flies,  149,  150 
Ichthyornis,  256,  354 
Incubation,  281 
Incomplete  metamorphosis,  40 
Industries  of  the  hive,  162 
Insect  net,  49 
Insects,  2,  238 
Isoptera,  44 

Jigger  fleas,  226 
Jointer  spiders,  235 

characteristics,  235 

palpi,  236 
Jugatae,  129 
June  bug,  59,  74,  78 

bird  enemies,  74 

Katydids,  87,  91 

bird  enemies,  97 
Key  to  families  of  spiders,  246 
Killing  bottle,  51 
Kingbird,  74,  97,  291 
Kingfisher,  313 
King  rail,  335 
Kissing  bug,"  117 

Labels,  56 
Labium,  4,  6 
Labrum,  2,  6 
Lace-wing,  221,  222 
Ladybird,  69 
Lamellirostres,  337 

characteristics,  337 

divisions,  337 

food,  338 

migrations,  339 


INDEX. 


36l 


Larvae,  34,  41 
Leaf  bugs,  in,  113 
Leaf  chafers: 

bird  enemies,  73 
Lepidoptera,  125 

biological  relationships,  130 

characteristics,  123 

distribution,  138 

larval  food-getting,  132 

metamorphosis,  131 

mouth-parts,  126 

primitive  lepidopters,  129 

setting  for  collection,  122 

value  of  order,  132 

wing  action,  29 
Light,  dermal  sense,  10 

effect  on  animals,  102 
Limicolae,  327 

bill,  327 

characteristics,  327 

food,  329 

migrations,  330 

nesting  habits,  329 
Linnaeus,  42 
Lizards,  259 
Lobstera,  238 

Locust,  setting  for  collection,  82 
Longipennes,  347 

characteristics,  347 

food,  348 
Loons,  351 
Lubbock,  141 
Luna  moth,  134 

Mallard,  342 
Mallophaga,  44 
Mandibles,  4 
Marsh  hawk,  256,  292 
May  beetle,  59,  73 

bird  enemies,  73,  74 
May  flies,  213 
Maxillae,  4 

Meadow  lark,  118,  137 
Merganser,  337 
Measuring  worm,  135 
Metamorphosis,  33 
Metazoa,  i 
Midas  flies,  201 
Migrations  of  birds,  274 

directions     within     United 
States,  274 

guiding  sense,  279 

mode  of  travel,  274,  279 

significance  of,  274 


Millipeds,  231 

Minnows,  200 

Mites,  144,  234 

Mocking  bird,  289 

Mollusca,  2 

Monarch  butterfly,  135 

Monogamy  among  birds,  280 

Mosaic  sight,  8 

Mosquitoes,  176,  193 

development,  194 

hibernation,  199 

immature  respiration,  195 

malarial  sort,  198 

natural  enemies,  200 

preventive  measures,     176, 
201 

scales  on  wings,  197 

sex  distinctions,  198 

economic  sorts,  193 
Moths,  125 
Mourning  dove,  321 
Mouth-parts: 

bees,  ants,  wasps,  1 53 

beetles,  76 

bugs,  99,  108,  126 

dragon  flies,  209 

fleas,  226 

flies,  184 

grasshoppers,  4,  87 

May  flies,  213 

moths  and  butterflies,  126 

Neuroptera,  221 

spiders,  23  i 

stone  flies,  217 
Mud-daubers,  168 
Muscles  of  grasshopper,  2,  3 
Myriapoda,  231,  238 

Naphtha,  55 
Nectar,  158,  164 
Nictitating  membrane,  297 
Negro  bugs,  113 
Nervous  system: 

birds,  296 

insects,  28 

Nesting  season  of  birds,  280,  287 
Nestling  birds,  food  of,  287 
Nest-making  of  birds,  284 
Neuroptera,  43,  221 

characteristics,  212 

development,  213 

feeding  habits,  213 

relationships,  212 

value  of  the  order,  2 1  5 


362 


INDEX. 


Nuthatches,  294 

Odonata,  207 
Optic  nerve,  8 
Orders  of  birds,  305. 

of  insects,  57 
Orientation,  279 
Orioles,  137,  257,  293 
Orthoptera,  43,  87 

characteristics,  85 

bird  enemies,  97 

metamorphosis,  87 

mouth-parts,  87 
Oscines,  308 
Ostrich,  266,  282 
Owls,  258 

barn,  292 

screech,  99,  137,  292 

Palpi,  5 

Parasitism,  149,  150 
Paroquet,  Carolina,  316 
Parrots,  316 
Passenger  pigeon,  321 
Passeres,  307,  355 

biological  position,  308,  311 

characteristics,  307 

economic  value,  311 
Pelicans,  301,  343 
Pen-marked  sphinx,  133 
Phalangina,  235 
Pheasant,  Mongolian,  74,  293 
Phoebe,  74 
Physopoda,  44 
Picarias,  312 
Pici,  313 

Pigeon  horntail,  1 50 
Pigeons,  320 
Pillbug,  238 
Pink  eye,  192 
Plecoptera,  217 

adult  characteristics,  217 

development,  217 

feeding  habits,  218 

nymphal  characteristics,  217 
Plovers,  327 
Plumage  of  birds,  271 
Pollen  gathering  by  bees,  163 
Polygamy  among  birds,  280,  342 
Pomace  flies,  193 
Potato  beetle,  73,  78 

bird  enemies,  74 
Praecocial  birds,  281 


Prairie  chickens,  74,  97,  n8,  322 

Prairie  squirrels,  2  59 

Praying  mantids,  14,  82,  94 

Primaries,  270 

Primitive  ground  sense,  10 

Propolis,  164 

Protective  colors: 

birds,  272,  327 

insects,  12,  79 
Protozoa,  i 
Psittaci,  316 
Puffins,  350 


Pupa,  33,  36 
Pygopodes,  3 


Quail 


experiment, 


and    chicken 

325 

uails  (see  Bobwhites) 
ueen  cells  of  honey  bees,  i  59 


Rails,  334 
Raptores,  318 
Reading  glass,  50 
Recognition  colors: 

insects,  7 
Rectrices,  268 
Red-tailed  hawk,  258,  292 
Regal  moth,  134 
Respiration  : 

birds,  300 

insects,  20 

rate  of,  23,  308 
River  fluke,  290 
Roaches,  92 

development,  94 

food  habits,  94 

foreign  and  native,  93 
Robber  flies,  203 
Robins,  74,  97,  137,  256,  267 
Rose-breasted  grosbeak,  74,  290 
Rose  chafers,  73 
Rove  beetles,  62,  69 

Sandpipers,  327 

spotted,  329 
Sawflies,  149,  154 
Scale  insects,  103,  no 

bird  enemies,  118 
Scales,  125 
Sclerites,  3,  6 
Screech  owl,  97,  137,  292 
Scorpions,  236 


INDEX. 


363 


Searcher,  the,  70 
Secondaries,  270 
Sharp-shinned  hawk,  291 
Shield-backed  bugs,  113 
Shield-backed  grasshoppers,  90 
Shrimps,  238 
Shore  birds,  327 
Silkworm  moth,  133 
Simple  body  type,  5,  28 
Siphonaptera,  226 

characteristics,  226 

development,  227 

parasitism,  226 

relation  to  bubonic  plague, 

229 

Skeleton  of  insects,  5 
Skunk,  260 
Smell,  sense  of: 

birds,  298 

insects,  1 1,  299 
Smelling  organs: 

birds,  299 

insects,  12 
Snails,  290,  329,  331 
Snake  flies,  221 
Snakes,  value  of,  68 
Snipes,  327 
Soldier  beetle,  69 
Soldier  bug,  117 
Soldier  fly,  188,  203 
Solpugida,  235 
Song  sparrow,  271 
Sparrow,  English,    74,    137,    290, 

310 

Sparrow  hawk,  97,  256,  291 
Sparrows,  74,  97,   118,   137,   256, 

290 

Special  senses,  7,  296 
Species,  272 
Sphecina,  168,  171 
Sphinx  moth,  133 
Spiders,  2,  238 

characteristics,  238 

development,  244 

food  habits,  240 

mouth-parts,  239 

non-sociability,  240 

poison  glands,  239 

respiration,  239 

sense  of,  240,  242 

spinning  habit,  242 

spinning  organs,  244 
Spider  wasps,  168 
Spiracular  system  of  insects,  2 1 


Squash  bug,  41,  101,  118 
bird  enemies,  61 

Stable  flies,  189 

Steganopodes,  343 

Sticklebacks,  200 

Stink  bugs,  117 

Stone  flies,  2 1 7 

Storks,  331 

Stridulation,  89 

Struggle  for  existence,  132 

Sunfish,  200 

Swallow,  barn,  97,  256 

Swallow-tail,  black,  135 

Swan,  337,  339 

Swarming  of  bees,  160 

Sympathetic  system: 
birds,  297 
insects,  29 


Tachina  flies,  201 
Tail  of  bird,  267 
Tarantula  killer,  170 
Taste : 

birds,  300 

insects,  16 

Tent  caterpillars,  134,  137 
Termites,  44 
Terns,  347 
Thalessa,  big,  i  50  . 
Thorax,  2 

Thread-legged  bug,  113 
Tread-waisted  wasp,  168 
Thrips,  44 
Thysanura,  44 
Ticks,  2,  234 
Tiger  beetle  larva,  60 
Toads,  259 
Tobacco  worm: 

adult,  37 

egg,  34 

larva,  35,  133 

pupa,  36 
Touch: 

birds,  300 

insects,  13 

man,  14,  15 
Towhee,  74,  97,  290 
Trap-door  spider,  241 
Tree  cricket,  80 
Tree  duck,  341 
Trichoptera,  44 
Tumble  bugs,  60" 
Turkey,  wild,  326 


364  INDEX. 

Vanessa  cardui,  138  Water  scavengers,  61,  69 

Vespina,  168,  172  Water  scorpions,  112 

Vireo,  137,  256  Water  striders,  98 

Vital  processes:  Wax-making  of  bees,  163 

birds,  300  Webs  of  spiders,  242 

insects,  20  Weevils,  73 
Vulture,  black,  259,  319  bird  enemies,  74 

Whip-poor-wills,  257 
Whip-tailed  scorpion,  237 

Walking  sticks,  51,95  Whirligigs,  63 

Warblers,  137,  256,  293  White  ants,  44 

Wasp  flies,  188,  203  White  grubs,  59,  73,  74 

Wasps,  163  Wing  of  bird,  268 
community  life,  173  comparison,  269 

industries,  173,  174  Winter  birds,  value  of,  278 

nests,  172,  174  Wire  worms,  74 

paper-making,  175  Woodcock,  328 

sense  powers,  172  Wood  duck,  282 

social,  172  Woodpeckers,  74,   118,  2^7,  294, 
solitary,  168  3 1 3,  342 

study  of,  144 

Water  boatman,  99  Zoology  defined,  i 


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QUALITATIVE  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  INORGANIC  SUBSTANCES. 
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